Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T17:41:03.955Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Making News Soviet: Rethinking Journalistic Professionalism after Stalin, 1953–1970

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2017

SIMON HUXTABLE
SIMON HUXTABLE*
Affiliation:
Loughborough University, Epinal Way, Loughborough LE11 3TU; [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article challenges the assumption, frequently made in scholarship on Soviet media, that news was absent in the Soviet Union. Working across press, radio, and television, the article shows how after 1953 reform of Soviet news became a priority for journalists, editors and media professionals. The article focuses on discussions among journalists and officials about the future of journalism, arguing that journalists’ notions of professional excellence played a crucial role in shaping news coverage. In a climate of Cold War competition with western radio, new technological possibilities and changing political priorities, journalists gradually overcame their condescension towards news, emphasising its civic potential as an agent of social ‘democratisation’, and the artistic nature of reportage. This new configuration was precarious, however, and collapsed after the Czechoslovakian crisis of 1968. As the Party placed new restrictions on the flow of information, news lost its professional prestige.

Type
Articles
Information
Contemporary European History , Volume 27 , Issue 1 , February 2018 , pp. 59 - 84
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Research for this article was generously funded through a Doctoral grant from the Arts and Humanities Research Council, and also as part of the Leverhulme Trust project ‘Screening Socialism’ (RPG 2013-025). My thanks to Christine Evans, Dina Fainberg, Stephen Lovell, Chrysi Papaioannou, and to the article's anonymous reviewers for their comments.

References

1 Smith, Hedrick, The Russians (New York: Quadrangle, 1976), 367.Google Scholar

2 Schramm, Wilbur, ‘The Soviet Communist Theory of the Press’ in Siebert, Fred S., ed., Four Theories of the Press (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1956), 133–4Google Scholar; Kaiser, Robert, Russia: The People and the Power (London: Secker & Warburg, 1976), 215.Google Scholar

3 Roudakova, Natalia, Losing Pravda: Ethics and the Press in Post-Truth Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4 Zhiveinov, Nikolai, Kapitalisticheskaia pressa SShA (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1956).Google Scholar

5 Roth-Ey, Kristin, Moscow Prime Time: How the Soviet Union Built the Media Empire That Lost the Cultural Cold War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010)Google Scholar; Evans, Christine, ‘A “Panorama of Time”: The Chronotopics of Programma “Vremia”’, Ab Imperio, 2 (2010), 121–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Between Truth and Time: A History of Soviet Central Television (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016), 115–49; Mikkonen, Simo, ‘Stealing the Monopoly of Knowledge? Soviet Reactions to U.S. Cold War Broadcasting’, Kritika 11, 4 (2010), 771–805CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lovell, Stephen, Russia in the Microphone Age: A History of Soviet Radio, 1919–1970 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6 Wolfe, Thomas C., Governing Soviet Journalism: The Press and the Soviet Person after Stalin (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Roudakova, Losing Pravda.

7 French, Mary-Catherine, Reporting Socialism: Soviet Journalism and the Journalists’ Union, 1955–1966, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 2014Google Scholar. See also Remington, Thomas F., The Truth of Authority: Ideology and Communication in the Soviet Union (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1988)Google Scholar.

8 Bichler, Lorenz, ‘Public Secrets: Propaganda of the Chinese Communist Party and Correspondents in Shanghai after 1949’, in Rittersporn, Gabór T., Rolf, Malte and Behrends, Jan C., eds. Sphären von Öffentlichkeit in Gesellschaften sowetischen Typs (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003), 373–4.Google Scholar

9 Nerone, John, ‘The Historical Roots of the Normative Model of Journalism’, Journalism 14 (2013), 447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10 Bogdanov, N., Viazemskii, B., Spravochnik zhurnalista (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1965), 312–48Google Scholar, esp. 324–32.

11 Pal'gunov, Nikolai, Osnovy informatsii v gazete: TASS i ego rol' (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo universiteta, 1955), 3.Google Scholar

12 For comparison see Lester Markel, ‘Definition of News’, Nieman Reports, Sept. 1972, 8.

13 See, for example, Schudson, Michael, ‘The Objectivity Norm in Journalism’, Journalism 2, 2 (2001), 149–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14 Schudson, Michael, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 3–11, 121–59Google Scholar; Kaplan, Richard, ‘The Origins of Objectivity in American Journalism’, in Stuart Allan, ed., The Routledge Companion to News and Journalism Studies (London: Routledge, 2009), 26.Google Scholar

15 Ia. Baranov, V. Kol'tsov, ‘Sred' bela dnia. . .’, Sovetskaia pechat’ (henceforth SP), 11 (1962), 35.

16 Bogdanov, Spravochnik, 324.

17 Plamper, Jan, ‘Abolishing Ambiguity: Soviet Censorship Practices in the 1930s’, Russian Review, 60, 4 (2001), 526–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

18 The full list of prohibitions can be seen in the ‘Index’: Perechen' svedenii, zapreshchennykh k opublikovaniiu v otkrytoi pechati, peredachakh po radio i televideniiu (Moscow: Glavnoe upravlenie po okhrane gosudarstvennykh tain v pechati, 1976).

19 See Roxburgh, Angus, Pravda: Inside the Soviet News Machine (London: Victor Gollancz, 1987), 66–7.Google Scholar

20 On this process, see Zakhar'ko, Vasilii, Zvezdnye chasy i drama ‘Izvestii’: Za kulisami snamenitoi gazety (Moscow: Vremia, 2014), 38–43.Google Scholar

21 Komsomol'skaia pravda (KP) editorial letuchka, 9 Nov. 1959, Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History (RGASPI), f.98М, op.1, d.253, ll.26–27. Foreign correspondents working at TASS faced similar processes of approval. See Polevoi to TsK KPSS, 10 December 1955, RGASPI, f.5, op.16, d.734, ll.148–149.

22 I. Izgaryshev, ‘Ot serdtsa k serdtsu’, TVMuseum.ru (2008). See http://tvmuseum.ru/catalog.asp?ob_no=12963 (last visited 4 July 2017) Sergei Esin, ‘V rodnom efire: iz zapisok byvshego preuspevaiushchego chinovnika’, TVMuseum.ru (1989), See http://tvmuseum.ru/catalog.asp?ob_no=8465 (last visited 4 July 2017).

23 For contributions within the totalitarian paradigm see Thom, Françoise, Newspeak: The Language of Soviet Communism, tr. Connelly, Ken (London: The Claridge Press, 1989)Google Scholar; Ellis, Frank, ‘The Media as Social Engineer’, in Kelly, Catriona and Shepherd, David, eds., Russian Cultural Studies: An Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 192–222.Google Scholar

24 ‘Zapiska Glavlita pri SM SSSR o narushenii poriadka tsennovskogo kontrolia Tsentral'noi studiei televideniia pri SM SSSR’, 25 Dec. 1958, Russian State Archive of Contemporary History (RGANI), f.5, op.33, d.73, ll.78–81; ‘Zapiska Glavlita pri SM SSSR o narushenii tsenzorskogo kontrolia na radio’, 9 Sept. 1961, RGANI, f.5, op.33, d.175, ll.50–52.

25 See, for example, Natal'ia Otamas’, Interview with Leonid Zolotarevskii, TVMuseum.ru, available at http://tvmuseum.ru/catalog.asp?ob_no=10636 (last visited 4 July 2017).

26 ‘Decisions of the Editorial Board of KP’, Jan. 1960, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.266, ll.5, 17. On this point see Blium, Arlеn, Sovetskaia tsenzura v epokhu total'nogo terrora, 1929–1953 (St. Petersburg: Akademicheskii proekt, 2000), 78.Google Scholar

27 See Korneshov, Lev, ‘Ia ee liubil. A ona menia?’ in Bol'she, chem gazeta, Semina, Liudmila ed. (Moscow: PoRog, 2006), 154, 157Google Scholar; Volkova, Tat'iana, Interview with Aleksandr Iakovlev in A.I. Adzhubei – redaktor i publitsist, PhD thesis, Moscow State University, 2010, 354.Google Scholar

28 See Mitrokhin, Nikolai, ‘“Lichnye sviazi” v apparate TsK KPSS’, Neprikosnovennyi zapas 3, 83 (2012)Google Scholar, available at http://magazines.russ.ru/nz/2012/3/m13.html (last visited 4 July 2017).

29 See, for example, Komsomol First Secretary Aleksandr Shelepin's corrections to an article on CIA Director Allen Dulles: ‘Chego boitsia g-n Dalles’ (sent for verification to A.N. Shelepin), 12 Mar. 1957, RGASPI, f.1M, op.32, d.847, 145–53, and the Komsomol Central Committee's request for an article on “Soviet-Chinese friendship”, ‘Extract from Protocol No.26 of Komsomol Central Committee Secretariat Meeting’, 11 Feb. 1959, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.237, l.5. Other documents from this delo concern similar requests to Komsomol'skaia pravda.

30 ‘On the Incorrect Practice of Excessive Illustration in Some Newspapers’, Central Committee Resolution, 11 Feb. 1958 in Sovetskaia pechat’ v dokumentakh (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1961), 286–7.

31 ‘Combined plan, Feb.–Mar. 1960 for Sovetskaia Rossiia’, 1960, RGANI, f.96, op.1, d.22, ll.59–76. On the importance of planning, see Bogdanov, Spravochnik, 242–65.

32 Figures are from a one-week content analysis of Komsomol'skaia pravda conducted by the author. Figures refer to column space.

33 KP editorial letuchka, 18 Apr. 1960, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.271, l.83. For complaints see ‘Some Remarks on the Work of TASS’, n/d 1954, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.136, ll.11–13; ‘On the Work of TASS’, 8 May 1956, RGASPI, f.1M, op.32, d.821, ll.8–13; KP editorial letuchka, 28 May 1956, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.172, l.118; KPSS o sredstvakh massovoi informatsii i propagandy (Moscow: Politizdat, 1987), 46–9.

34 TASS even dictated where, and on which page, a story should appear. See ‘On the Work of TASS’, l.8.

35 Polevoi to TsK KPSS, 10 Dec. 1955, RGASPI, f.5, op.16, d.734, ll.148-149. This was a particular problem in a climate where most national newspapers were refused foreign correspondents until the early 1960s.

36 KP editorial letuchka, 16 May 1956, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.171, ll.96–97; see also 11 Jun. 1956, f.98M, op.1, d.173, l.6. On the journalistic hierarchy see Mamleev, Dmitrii, ‘Polpred gazety’, SP, 6 (1963), 14–7.Google Scholar

37 This led to frequent debates about broadening the ‘geography’ of the newspaper. Izvestiia letuchka, 27 May 1958, State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF), f.R1244, op.1, d.186, l.26; 2/6/58, d.227, ll.28, 30.

38 Quite literally ‘prized’: the award for ‘article of the week’ at Komsomol'skaia pravda, which came with a fat honorarium, was seldom awarded to news items.

39 Raspevin, A., ‘Nuzhen reporter – nuzhen reportazh!’, SP, 2 (1955), 8.Google Scholar

40 Kalinin, N, ‘Da, nuzhen reporter, nuzhen reportazh!’, SP, 1 (1956), 24.Google Scholar

41 All items from Sovetskaia Rossiia, 21 July 1956, 4.

42 ‘Vstrecha so ‘snezhnym chelovekom’’, Komsomol'skaia pravda, 14 Jan. 1958, 4.

43 KP editorial letuchka, 19 Mar. 1956, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.170, ll.43–44.

44 Kitain, V., Starodub, A., ‘Za interesnyi, iarkii reportazh’, SP, 9 (1956), 22–4.Google Scholar

45 Protocol of Closed Party Meeting at KP, 14 Mar. 1956, Division for Preservation of Records of Moscow's Socio-Political History (OKhDOPIM, formerly TsAOPIM), f.1968, op.1, d.30, ll.101–102.

46 See also ‘Tvoi dolg, zhurnalist!’, SP, 1 (1955), 1–3.

47 Simon Huxtable, ‘Shortcomings: Soviet Journalists and the Changing Role of Press Criticism after the Twentieth Party Congress’, in Bohm, Thomas M., Einax, Rayk, Abeβer, Michel eds., De-Stalinisation Reconsidered: Persistence and Change in the Soviet Union (Frankfurt-am-Main: Campus, 2014), 209–22.Google Scholar

48 KP editorial letuchka, 3 Sept. 1956, RGASPI, d.176, ll.4–5, 20–21, here l.34, emphasis added.

49 See Huxtable, ‘Shortcomings’; KP editorial letuchka, 28 Jan. 1957, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.189, ll.122–128; Afanas'ev, B., ‘Sostoianie i zadachi gazetnoi informatsii’, SP, 12 (1958), 11Google Scholar; Blatin, A., ‘Proizvodstvennaia informatsiia’, SP, 12 (1958), 13.Google Scholar

50 Brooks, Jeffrey, Thank You Comrade Stalin: Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 97–105Google Scholar, 195–232; Lenoe, Matthew, Closer to the Masses: Stalinist Culture, Social Revolution, and Soviet Newspapers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 212–44.Google Scholar

51 ‘Protocol of Closed Party Meeting at KP’, 14 Mar. 1956, OKhDOPIM, f.1968, op.1, d.30, l.96. Evans likewise argues that the journalism of the First Five Year Plan was an inspiration for TV news producers (Between Truth and Time, 115–9).

52 Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991), 33.Google Scholar

53 ‘Odin den’ piatiletki’, Komsomol'skaia pravda, 1 Mar. 1956, 1–4.

54 Mickiewicz, Ellen, Split Signals: Television and Politics in the Soviet Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 28–30Google Scholar; Evans, Between Truth and Time, 119–21.

55 Burenkov, M., ‘Korrespondentsiia - osnovnoi gazetnyi zhanr’, SP, 1 (1957), 10–2.Google Scholar

56 KP editorial letuchka, 5 Mar. 1956, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.170, l.111.

57 KP editorial letuchka, 12 Jan. 1959, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.242, ll.55–56, see also l.73.

58 Kamenetskii, E., ‘“Fitil”’, SP, 8 (1960), 37–8Google Scholar. On Adzhubei's Den’ mira project see Wolfe, Governing, 48–70.

59 Adzhubei, Aleksei, Te desiat’ let (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1989), 232–4.Google Scholar

60 Ibid., 9; Dina Fainberg, Notes from the Rotten West, Reports From the Backward East: Soviet and American Foreign Correspondents in the Cold War, 1945–1985, unpublished PhD thesis, Rutgers, 2012, 62; Volkov, Aleksandr, Opasnaia professiia: Nravy moego vremeni v zhurnalistike i obshchestve (St. Petersburg: Gelikon Plius, 2010), 71–5.Google Scholar

61 KP Party-Komsomol Meeting, 13 Dec. 1961, OKhDOPIM, f.1968, op.1, d.35, ll.163–164.

62 Eimermacher, Karl, ‘Partiinoe upravlenie kul'turoi i formy ee samoorganizatsii (1953–1964/67)’, in Ideologicheskie Komissii TsK KPSS, 1958–1964. Dokumenty (Moscow: Rosspen, 1998), 8–10.Google Scholar

63 KP Party-Komsomol Meeting, 13 Dec. 1961, OKhDOPIM, f.1968, op.1, d.35, l.63.

64 Razzakov, Fedor, Gibel’ Sovetskogo TV. Tainy televideniia: ot Stalina do Gorbacheva, 1930–1991 (Moscow: Eksmo, 2009), 14.Google Scholar

65 Narodnoe khoziaistvo v SSSR v 1956 g. (Moscow: Statistika, 1957), 158; Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR v 1962 g. (Moscow: Statistika, 1963), 422.

66 On the difficulties of early TV news see Ibid., ll.8, 25–6; Iurovskii, A., ‘Reportazh na ekrane televizora’, SP, 4 (1956), 31–2Google Scholar; Zelenov, A., ‘Televizionnyi reportazh’, Sovetskoe radio i televidenie (henceforth SRT), 3 (1959), 34Google Scholar; Mushnikov, N., ‘Televizionnaia informatsiia’, SRT, 4 (1959), 22–3Google Scholar; Riazhskii, N., ‘Novosti li eto?’ SRT, 5 (1962), 22–3Google Scholar; Evans, ‘Panorama’, 127.

67 Paulu, Burton, Radio and Television Broadcasting in Eastern Europe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1974), 101.Google Scholar

68 Conversation between staff of KP and Central Television Studio, 8 May 1959, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.255, ll.14–15, 40.

69 Lovell, Russia, 107–33.

70 Ibid., 163–8. See also Roth-Ey, Moscow, 159–60.

71 Roth-Ey, Moscow, 196–8; Condee, Nancy, ‘The Cultural Codes of the Thaw’, in Taubman, William, Khrushchev, Sergei and Gleason, Abbot, eds., Nikita Khrushchev (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 161.Google Scholar

72 This might be considered as a process of ‘remediation’: Bolter, Jay David and Grusin, Richard, Remediation: Understanding New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).Google Scholar

73 On the growing importance of everyday speech styles on television see Huxtable, Simon, ‘The Problem of Personality on Soviet Television, 1950s-1960s’, VIEW: Journal of European Television History and Culture, 3, 5 (2014), 119–130Google Scholar; Roth-Ey, Moscow, 161. Boglovskii, T., Lifshits, Z., ‘Prodolzhaem razgovor’, SRT, 4 (1958), 5Google Scholar; Kiperman, M., ‘Vse strana chitaet gazetu’, SRT, 5 (1962).Google Scholar

74 Lovell, Stephen, ‘Broadcasting Bolshevik: The Radio Voice of Soviet Culture’, Journal of Contemporary History, 48, 1 (2012), 78–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roth-Ey, Moscow, 236–45.

75 Meeting with A.A. Puzin on Development of Television, 2 Feb. 1956, GARF, f.R6903, op.1, d.500, ll.9–10; Rogov, A., ‘Razgovor o reportazhe’, SRT, 5 (1957), 11Google Scholar; Lovell, Russia, 174–8.

76 ‘O ’Poslednikh izvestiiakh’ Vsesoiuznogo radio’, SRT, 6 (1957), 39–40.

77 Frolov, M, ‘Reportazh - glavnaia forma informatsii’, SRT, 2 (1957), 20, 21.Google Scholar

78 See also Kleinerman, Ia., ‘Pliusy i minusy ‘TN’’, SRT, 6 (1965), 14–15Google Scholar. See also Khataevich, L., ‘‘Chto’ ili ‘kak’?’ SRT, 10 (1964), 5–6.Google Scholar

79 Bogdanov, Spravochnik, 331. For a useful overview of the development of reportage see Iuliia Urakcheeva, Zhanra reportazha v rosiiskoi i nemetskoi zhurnalistike, unpublished Master's Dissertation, Rostov State University, 2003. Available at: http://www.mediasprut.ru/jour/theorie/genre/report-his.shtml (Accessed 4 July 2017).

80 Khataevich, ‘Chto’, 5–6. See also Riabchikov, E., ‘Reporter ekrana’, SRT, 3 (1961), 8Google Scholar; Evans, Between Truth and Time, 129–31.

81 Zubok, Vladimir, Zhivago's Children: The Last Russian Intelligentsia (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009), 51–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

82 See, for example, Leont'eva, V., ‘Diktor i televizionnyi reportazh’, SRT, 3 (1961), 10–11Google Scholar; Mamontov, A., ‘Razgovornost’ – da!’, SRT 12, (1962), 10–1Google Scholar; Evans, Between Truth and Time, 120–1, 129–31.

83 Riabchikkov, ‘Reporter’, 8.

84 Lundgren, Lars, ‘Live From Moscow: The Celebration of Yuri Gagarin and Transnational Television in Europe’, VIEW: Journal of European Television History and Culture, 1, 2 (2012), 45–55Google Scholar; Fokin, Iu., ‘‘TN’ na novykh rubezhakh’, SRT, 2 (1965), 12Google Scholar; Lovell, Russia, 190–1.

85 ‘Chitatel’ i gazeta, vyp. 1: Chitateli Truda’. IKSI AN SSSR Informatsionnyi biulleten’, 20 (35), 1969, 100. ‘Naselenie o sredstvakh massovoi kommunikatsii kak istochnike informatsii’, 1968, Boris Grushin Files, Hoover Institution, Box 9, Folder 6, Q.18; Fainberg, ‘Notes’, 62–4.

86 E.g. Adzhubei, A., ‘Boevoe oruzhie partii’, SP, 5 (1963), 6.Google Scholar

87 Roth-Ey, Moscow, 160.

88 Ibid., 140–6; Mikkonen, ‘Stealing’; Michael Nelson, War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Cold War (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1997).

89 Kosinova, Tat'iana, ‘Sobytiia 1956 g. v Pol'she glazami sovetskikh dissidentov’, in Eremina, L.S. and Zhemkova, E.B., Korni travli: Sbornik statei molodykh istorikov (Moscow: Zvenia, 1996), 193–215.Google Scholar

90 See KP editorial letuchka, 5 Nov. 1956, RGASPI, f.1M, op.32, d.821, ll.73–74; Amir Weiner, ‘Foreign Media, the Soviet Western Frontier, and the Hungarian and Czechoslovak Crises’, in Johnson, A. R. and Parta, R. E., eds., Cold War Broadcasting: Impact on the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Budapest; New York: CEU Press, 2010), 304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

91 On foreign media in the Hungarian Uprising see Granville, Johanna, ‘“Caught with Jam on Our Fingers”: Radio Free Europe and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956’, Diplomatic History, 29, 5 (2005), 811–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Webb, Alban, ‘Cold War Radio and the Hungarian Uprising, 1956’, Cold War History, 13, 2 (2013), 221–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

92 ‘V vengrii podnimal golovu fashizm. Chto proizoshlo v vengrii?’ Komsomol'skaia pravda, 11 Dec. 1956, 4.

93 KP editorial letuchka, 5 Nov. 1956, RGASPI, f.1M, op.32, d.821, ll.63–65, 75.

94 Ibid., l.89.

95 KPSS o sredstvakh massovoi informatsii, 43–9, 533–45.

96 Cold War Broadcasting, 539, 543.

97 Mikkonen, ‘Stealing’, 797–803.

98 Hochmuth, Hanno, ‘Feindbild und Leitbild: Westfernsehen in der DDR’, in Aust, Martin and Schönpflug, Daniel, Vom Gegner lernen: Feindschaften und Kulturtransfers im Europa des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt: Campus-Verlag, 2007), 283–7.Google Scholar

99 The BBC's influence on TV news provides another example: Evans, Between Truth and Time, 125–6.

100 Khazanov, A., ‘Den’ nashei planety’, SRT, 8 (1964), 7–9.Google Scholar

101 Ibid., 9.

102 Lisann, Maury, Broadcasting to the Soviet Union: International Politics and Radio (New York: Praeger, 1975), 68.Google Scholar

103 Osipov, Vladimir. ‘Kliuchi Bi-Bi-Si.’ Zhurnalist, 5 (1968), 56–9Google Scholar. See also Sagal, G., ‘Samoe trudnoe – vodit’ peryshkom po bumage’, SP, 10 (1966), 39–41Google Scholar; Anri P'er [Henri Pierre], ‘Le Monde’ Zhurnalist, 3 (1968), 43.

104 Peskov, Vasilli, ‘Shelest stranits, kak shelest znamen’ Zhurnalist, 10 (1967), 7Google Scholar; Nosov, Lev, ‘Ulitsa novostei’, Zhurnalist, 1 (1968), 42.Google Scholar

105 For an elaboration of this point see Mills, Rilla Dean, The Soviet Journalist: A Cultural Analysis, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1981, 105–9.Google Scholar

106 Roth-Ey, Moscow, 156–74.

107 Ibid., 173.

108 Transcript of Second Congress of the Union of Journalists, 28 Sept. 1966, GARF, f.10124, op.1, d.301, l.218. My thanks to Mary-Catherine French for helping me locate this source. See also the comments of Dmitrii Goriunov, ll.45–46, 49–51; Tolkunov, Lev, ‘Slovo est’ delo’ Zhurnalist 7, (1967), 5Google Scholar. These salvos appear to stem from an earlier Kommunist editorial: ‘Antisovetizm – odno iz glavnykh napravlenii v ideologii sovremennogo imperializma’ Kommunist, 10 (1965), 77.

109 All-Union Creative Meeting of Publicists, 28 Sept. 1966, GARF, f.10124, op.1, d.242, l.24. See also Zimanas's comments, ll.19–20.

110 Lisann, Broadcasting, 52, 64; Kruzhilin, Iu. ‘Sem' s polovinoi’ SP, 6 (1966), 8–9.Google Scholar

111 I have not been able to locate this resolution, but it is mentioned and quoted by several speakers at a meeting at the Journalists’ Union: ‘All-Union Meeting on Problems of Radio and Television Information’, 23 Nov. 1966, GARF, f.R6903, op.1, d.901, ll.36–38.

112 Lovell, Russia, 174–8, 189; Roth-Ey, Moscow, 173; Nelson, War, 119–20.

113 KP editorial letuchka, 1 June 1966, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.430, l.12.

114 Peskov, V., ‘Drama i podviga Tashkenta’, Komsomol'skaia pravda, 15 May 1966, 4.Google Scholar

115 ‘Novosti’, Komsomol'skaia pravda, 5 Jan. 1966, 1.

116 Skakunov, Leonid, Zhurfak 65–70 (Vladimir, 1999), 39–40.Google Scholar

117 KP editorial letuchka, 18 Oct. 1966, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.438, ll.24–27.

118 Robert Hackett, A., Zhao, Yuezhi, Sustaining Democracy? Journalism and the Politics of Objectivity (Toronto: Garamond Press, 1998), 36–59 [37].CrossRefGoogle Scholar

119 KP editorial letuchka, 18 Oct. 1966, RGASPI, f.98M, op.1, d.438, ll.24–27, 37, 40.

120 Huxtable, Simon, ‘The Life and Death of Brezhnev's Thaw: Changing Values in Soviet Journalism after Khrushchev, 1964-1968’, in Fainberg, Dina and Kalinovsky, Artemy, eds., Reconsidering Stagnation in the Brezhnev Era: Ideology and Exchange (New York: Lexington Books, 2016), 21–42.Google Scholar

121 ‘Shirota informatsii – doverie chitatelei’ Zhurnalist, 4 (1968), 4. See also Barashev, Pavel, ‘Polstroki o reportazhe’, Zhurnalist, 12 (1967), 26–7.Google Scholar

122 ‘Shirota informatsii’, 4. See also Tolkunov, ‘Slovo’, 4.

123 Peskov, ‘Shelest stranits’, 7. See also Barashev, ‘Polstroki’.

124 Volkov, A. I., Pugacheva, M. G. and Iarmoliuk, S. F., eds., Pressa v obshchestve (1959–2000) (Moscow: Moskovskaia shkola politicheskikh issledovanii, 2000), 263–7, 577–9.Google Scholar

125 Roudakova, Losing Pravda, 51–97.

126 See Arkhangel'skii, V., ‘Kakaia informatsiia nuzhna?’, Zhurnalist, 8 (1971), 8–10.Google Scholar

127 Arkhangel'skii, ‘Kakaia informatsiia’; Povzlo, N., ‘V teni pomerantsevogo derevtsa’, Zhurnalist, 9 (1971), 12Google Scholar; ‘V poiskakh novostei’, Zhurnalist, 11 (1971), 15–8.

128 Evans, Between Truth and Time, 135–45.

129 Curran, James, ‘Mediations of Democracy’, in Curran, James and Gurevitch, Michael, eds., Mass Media and Society. Fourth Edition (London: Hodder, 2003), 129–31.Google Scholar

130 Zelizer, Barbie, ‘On the Shelf Life of Democracy in Journalism Scholarship’, Journalism, 14, 4 (2014), 465Google Scholar.

131 Curry, Jane Leftwich, Poland's Journalists: Professionalism and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

132 Zhao, Yuezhi, ‘Understanding China's Media System in a World Historical Context’, in Hallin, Daniel and Mancini, Paolo, eds., Comparing Media Systems Beyond the Western World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 161–6.Google Scholar

133 Wolfe, Governing, 45–8; Roudakova, Losing Pravda, 51–97.

134 Roudakova, Losing Pravda.

135 On news media during perestroika see Wolfe, Governing, 151–70; Mickiewicz, Ellen, Changing Channels: Television and the Struggle for Power in Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997)Google Scholar; McNair, Brian, Glasnost, Perestroika and the Soviet Media (Abingdon: Routledge, 1991)Google Scholar.