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Enlargement and the Historical Origins of the European Community's Democratic Identity, 1961–1978

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 April 2016

EMMA DE ANGELIS  and
EIRINI KARAMOUZI
EMMA DE ANGELIS
Affiliation:
Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies, Whitehall, London, SW1A 2ET, United Kingdom; [email protected]
EIRINI KARAMOUZI
Affiliation:
Department of History, Jessop West, 1 Upper Hanover Street, Sheffield, S3 7RAUnited Kingdom; [email protected]
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Abstract

This article examines how and when democracy entered the discursive politics of the European Community to become one of the fundamental tenets of European political identity – and in the process influenced how decision-makers approached the question of enlargement. Building on multiple archival sources, the article traces how all three Community institutions (Commission, Council and European Parliament) legitimised the expansion and continuation of the process of European integration through the discursive construction of democracy. It focuses on the debates elicited by the attempts of southern European countries to accede to the EEC in the 1960s and 1970s.

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Articles
Information
Contemporary European History , Volume 25 , Special Issue 3: European Integration , August 2016 , pp. 439 - 458
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

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References

1 For a discussion of how today's European Union has progressively appropriated the discursive space of ‘Europe’ see Hermann, Richard, Risse-Kappen, Thomas and Brewer, Marilynn, Transnational Identities – Becoming European in the EU (New York: Rowan and Littlefield, 2004)Google Scholar. Although this is not the focus of this article, it is possible to trace how EEC actors slowly started to build the equation of ‘Europe’ with their own institutions over the course of the first two decades of its existence. See also De Angelis, Emma, ‘The European Parliament's Identity Discourse and Eastern Europe, 1974–2004’, Journal of European Integration History, 17,1 (2011), 103–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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3 The concept of identity is subject to on-going scrutiny and debate across a variety of disciplines – with ‘European identity’ alternatively being approached as an identity created by political leaders, one identified by scholars across centuries of historical and cultural developments or the identification with ‘Europe’ and/or the EU among specific communities. The literature is vast but some examples include Bruter, Michael, Citizens of Europe? The Emergence of a Mass European Identity (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Strath, Bo, Europe and the Other and Europe as Other (Brussels: PIE Lang, 2001)Google Scholar; Checkel, Jeffrey T and Katzenstein, Peter J, European Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008)Google Scholar; Herrmann, Risse and Brewer, eds., Transnational Identities; Delanty, Gerard, Inventing Europe: Idea, Identity, Reality (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eder, Klaus, ‘A Theory of Collective Identity. Making Sense of the Debate on a “European Identity”’, European Journal of Social Theory, 12,4 (2009), 427–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 In the 1970s European actors often grouped Spain and Portugal together whenever the issue of ‘democracy’ and political practices was under scrutiny. In spite of the obvious differences, the treatment of the political identity question was remarkably similar across the three countries – being the first country to go through the process, Greece was also the one that first gave rise to questions about the political dimensions of enlargement. Much of what follows will therefore focus on Greece as a key case study.

5 Conclusions of the Sessions of the European Council, 1975–1990, Copenhagen 7–8 Apr 1978, Archive of European Integration, University of Pittsburgh.

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13 Willi Birkelbach, Report on behalf of the Political Affairs Committee on the political and institutional aspects of accession or association to the Community, 15 Jan. 1962, European Parliamentary Assembly (hereafter EPA), Documents de Séance, Doc. 122. Rapporteur Willi Birkelbach was a member of the German Social Democratic Party and hence of the Socialist Group within the EP.

14 Ibid.

15 EPA, 15 Jan. 1962, Birkelbach Report, 4.

16 EPA, 15 Jan. 1962, Birkelbach Report, 5; for more on the Council of Europe's human rights policy, see Jordan, Pamela A., ‘Does Membership have its Privileges? Entrance into the Council of Europe and Compliance with Human Rights Norms’, Human Rights Quarterly, 25, 3 (2003), 660–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Black-Branch, Jonathan L., ‘Observing and Enforcing Human Rights under the Council of Europe: The Creation of a Permanent European Court of Human Rights’, The Buffalo Journal of International Law, 3, 1 (1996), 1–33Google Scholar.

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18 See for instance Jean Pierre Duvieusart, Christian Democrat, Belgium, EPA, Débats, Aspects politiques et institutionnels de l'adhésion ou de l'association à la Communauté, 23 Jan. 1962; Fernand Dehousse, Socialist, Belgium, EPA, Débats, Aspects politiques et institutionnels de l'adhésion ou de l'association à la Communauté, 23 Jan. 1962.

19 Powell, Charles, ‘The Long Road to Europe. Spain and the European Community, 1957–86’, in Cruz, Julio Baquero and Closa, Carlos, eds., European Integration from Rome to Berlin, (Brussels: P.I.E. Peter Lang, 2009), 39–64Google Scholar.

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22 Jean Rey, Commission, EPA, Débats, Question orale sur l'ouverture de négociations avec l'Espagne, 29 Mar. 1962. Belgian Liberal Jean Rey was responsible for external relations in the Hallstein Commission and was President of the European Commission between July 1967 and July 1970.

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24 Ibid.

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29 Edoardo Martino, Christian Democrat, Italy, EPA, Débats, Question orale n. 4/67 avec débat relative a l'association CEE-Grèce, 8 May 1967. Martino, a former partisan and a member of the European Parliament since 1958, was Chair of the Political Committee between 1964 and 1967 and would then be commissioner for external affairs in the Rey Commission.

30 Wilhelmus Schuijt, Christian Democrat, Netherlands, EPA, Débats, Question orale n. 4/67 avec débat relative a l'association CEE-Gréce, 8 May 1967. Schujit was president of the Committee of Association with Greece.

31 EPA, Débats, Question orale n. 4/67 avec débat relative a l'association CEE-Grèce, 8 May 1967.

32 Walter Faller was a German member of the socialist group. Cornelis Berkhouver was a Dutch member of the European Parliament from 1964 to 1984. A member of the Dutch People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie), he was chair of the liberal and democratic group from February 1970 to March 1973 and President of the EP between March 1973 and March 1975; Cornelis Berkhouwer, Liberal and Democratic Group, Netherlands, EPA, Débats. Question orale n. 4/67 avec débat relative à l'association CEE-Grèce, 8 May 1967.

33 Résolution sur l'association entre la C.E.E. et la Grèce, EPA, Débats, 11 May 1967, Association CEE-Gréce. The resolution was approved by all party groups.

34 Note for Jean Rey, Brussels, 30 May 1967, Historical Archives of the European Union, Florence, Edoardo Martino Files (hereafter EM) 76.

35 Minutes of Council of Ministers, Brussels, 5 June 1967, EM 77; Study on the Strategic Situation in the Mediterranean due to Increased Presence of Soviet Fleet, Athens, 13 Feb. 1968, Historical Archive of Greek Foreign Ministry [hereafter HAFGM], Athens, London Embassy Series, 1968, N2324–45; Maragkou, Konstantina, ‘Favouritism in NATO's South-Eastern Flank: The Case of the Greek Colonels, 1967–74’, Cold War History, 9, 3 (2009), 347CrossRefGoogle Scholar–66; Miller, The United States, 157–61.

36 Meeting between Stavros Roussos and Jean Rey, Brussels, 7 Nov 1968, EM 79; Keys, Barbara, ‘Anti-Torture Politics: Amnesty International, the Greek Junta, and the Origins of the US Human Rights Boom’, in Iriye, Akira, Goedde, Petra and Hitchcock, William, eds., The Human Rights Revolution: An International History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 201Google Scholar–23.

37 Plassmann, Lorenz, Comme dans une nuit de Paques? Les relations franco-grecques, 1944–1981 (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pelt, Mogens, Tying Greece to the West. US-West German-Greek Relations, 1949–1974 (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

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39 See Jean Rey, EPA, Débats, 20 Sep 1967, Débat sur la déclaration de M. le President de la Commission des Communautés Européennes.

40 Bulletin Europe Information on Greece and the European Community, Brussels, 14/78, 3

41 Report for E. Martino, Brussels, 5 May 1968, EM 78.

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43 Although NATO's preamble contains references to democracy, one of its founding members, namely Portugal, was under dictatorship and military coups never resulted in pressures to end their authoritarian rule (Turkey, Greece); on NATO and Greek dictatorship see Pedaliu, Effie, ‘“A Discordant Note”’, 101–20; Pedaliu, ‘Human Rights and Foreign Policy: Wilson and the Greek Dictators, 1967–1970’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 18, 1 (2007), 185–214CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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55 Del Pero, Mario, The Eccentric Realist. Henry Kissinger and the making of American Foreign Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), 148Google Scholar.

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64 Karamanlis's interview in The New York Times, 27 May 1978.

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67 See Karamouzi, Greece, 1974–1979, 35–62.

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69 European Commission, ‘Position Adopted by the Council’, Bulletin of the European Communities, 1/76.

70 For a similar use of this shaming strategy in the 2004 enlargement, and a conceptualisation of the idea, see Schimmelfennig, Frank and Sedelmeier, Ulrich, eds., The Politics of European Union Enlargement. Theoretical Approaches (London: Routledge, 2005), 166Google Scholar.

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84 Letter by M. J. Fretwell, London, 10 Mar. 1978, MWE021/3, 26, FCO 30/3873, The National Archives, Foreign Commonwealth Office [henceforth FCO], Kew Gardens.

85 Report by É. Noël, La Roche, 17 Sept., EN 48.

86 Meeting of COREPER, Brussels, 22 Mar. 1978, MWE04/8, 63D, FCO 30/3874.

87 Meeting of European Council, Copenhagen, 8 Apr. 1978, MWE021/2, 256, FCO 30/3862.

88 Note by G. Exarxos, Brussels, 7 Jan. 1978, CKP 0178.

89 Kalypso Nicolaidis and Rachel Kleinfeld, ‘Rethinking Europe's Rule of Law and Enlargement Agenda: The Fundamental Dilemma’, Jean Monnet Working Paper, 12 Dec. 2012, 1–93.