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‘The Continuation of Politics by Other Means’: Britain, the Two Germanys and the Olympic Games, 1949–1972

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 September 2009

R. GERALD HUGHES  and
RACHEL J. OWEN
R. GERALD HUGHES
Affiliation:
Department of International Politics, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3FE, Wales; [email protected], [email protected].
RACHEL J. OWEN
Affiliation:
Department of International Politics, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, SY23 3FE, Wales; [email protected], [email protected].
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Abstract

This article evaluates the interplay between international sport and international politics during the cold war through an examination of the two Germanys and the Olympics from a British perspective. Germany was at the centre of Olympic and cold war politics between 1945 and the early 1970s, and the two German states competed fiercely over questions of national legitimacy. West Germany was initially successful in denying international recognition to the ‘other’ German state. East Germany countered this by developing a strategy that utilised international sport, particularly the Olympic Games, to further its claims for statehood. While recognising the flaws in the West German case against East Germany, British policy was constrained by the need to accommodate Bonn's sensibilities, given that the Federal Republic was a major ally. An examination of this ‘Olympian’ struggle from a British perspective tells us much about the West's cold war strategy and casts new light on this arena of East–West competition.

‘le prolongement de la politique par d'autres moyens’: la grande-bretagne, les deux allemagnes et les jeux olympiques, 1949–1972

Cet article évalue l'interaction entre sport et politique internationale pendant la Guerre froide à travers l'étude des deux Allemagnes et des Jeux Olympiques au point de vue britannique. Entre 1945 et les années 1970, les deux Allemagnes, menant une compétition féroce sur la question de la légitimité nationale, se trouvaient au centre des politiques de la Guerre froide et des Jeux Olympiques. Initialement, l'Allemagne de l'Ouest parvint à empêcher que ‘l'autre’ Etat allemand soit internationalement reconnu. Mais l'Allemagne de l'Est contra ses efforts en développant une stratégie qui utilisait le sport international, plus particulièrement les Jeux Olympiques, pour revendiquer son statut d'Etat souverain. Alors même que la Grande-Bretagne reconnaissait les déficiences de la politique ouest-allemande face à l'Allemagne de l'Est, elle ne pouvait négliger la sensibilité de Bonn, puisque la République fédérale était un allié majeur. L'analyse de cette lutte ‘olympique’ vue d'une perspective britannique nous dit beaucoup sur la stratégie occidentale de la Guerre froide et jette un nouveau regard sur ce domaine de la compétition Est–Ouest.

‘die fortführung der politik mit anderen mitteln’: großbritannien, die beiden deutschen staaten und die olympischen spiele, 1949–1972

Dieser Artikel betrachtet die Wechselwirkungen zwischen internationalem Sport und internationaler Politik während des Kalten Krieges, indem er aus britischer Perspektive die Beteiligung der beiden deutschen Staaten an den olympischen Spielen betrachtet. Zwischen 1945 und den 1970er Jahren stand Deutschland im Mittelpunkt der Politik des Kalten Krieges und somit auch der olympischen Spiele. Die beiden deutschen Staaten lieferten sich einen erbitterten Kampf um die Frage nationaler Legitimität. Zu Beginn verhinderte Westdeutschland erfolgreich, dass der ‘andere’ deutsche Staat international anerkannt wurde. Ostdeutschland konterte jedoch mit einer Strategie, die den internationalen Sport, vor allem die olympischen Spiele, gebrauchte, um die Anerkennung seiner Souveränität zu fördern. Obwohl die britische Politik die Schwächen der westdeutschen Politik gegen Ostdeutschland erkannte, musste sie auf Bonns Empfindlichkeiten Rücksicht nehmen, da die Bundesrepublik ein wichtiger Alliierter war. Die Untersuchung dieses ‘olympischen’ Kampfes aus britischer Perspektive sagt viel über die westliche Strategie im Kalten Krieg aus und wirft neues Licht auf diesen Teil der Ost–West-Konfrontation.

Type
Articles
Information
Contemporary European History , Volume 18 , Issue 4 , November 2009 , pp. 443 - 474
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

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References

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50 Thus, for example, the September 1950 statement was repeated verbatim in the Final Act of the London Nine-Power Conference on 3 October 1954. Ruhm von Oppen, Documents, 607. The nine powers were Belgium, Canada, France, the FRG, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States.

51 Strauß to Bundestag, 16 July 1952, Verhandlungen des Deutschen Bundestages, 1. Wahlperiode, 9853.

52 Radio interview with Adenauer, 11 June 1953. Hughes, Britain, Germany and the Cold War, 15.

53 See, for instance, the letter of Adenauer to the chairman of the Allied High Commission, McCloy, John C. [231–11 II/6646/50], 24 August 1950, document 112, Akten zur Auswärtigen Politik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (AAPD): September 1949 bis Dezember 1950 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1997)Google Scholar.

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62 PRO, FO 371/98011 [C 1801/2] FO, 27 February 1952. See also Guttmann, The Games Must Go On, 153.

63 ‘Decision of the Executive Committee of the International Olympic Committee regarding the German situation’, 11 February 1952. Bulletin du Comité International Olympique, 32 (1952), 37. For British comment on this see PRO, FO 371/98011 [C 1801/1i] FO report of Stockholm Radio, 12 February 1952.

64 Bulletin du Comité International Olympique, 32 (1952), 11. See also Balbier, Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn, 77.

65 PRO, FO 371/98011 [C 1801/2] FO minute, 27 February 1952.

66 ‘The National Olympic Committees: Germany (1895)’, Bulletin du Comité International Olympique, 64 (1958), 59.

67 Blasius, Olympische Bewegung, 94–122. The Saarland, which did not become a part of the FRG until 1957, competed as a separate team in 1952 and as part of the all-German team in 1956.

68 Christopher R. Hill, ‘The Cold War and the Olympic Movement: 1980 and 1984 Boycotts by the US and Russia’, History Today, January 1999, 2.

69 Hill, Olympic Politics, 38–9.

70 PRO, FO 371/98011 [C 1801/1ii], ‘The Sports Situation in Germany in its Relation to the International Field’ (Annex), Berenson, GOC Berlin to Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick, UK High Commissioner, 8 February 1952.

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73 F. Stephen Larrabee, ‘Moscow and the German Question’, in Verheyen and Søe, The Germans and Their Neighbours, 206–8.

74 This struggle was global and the GDR was particularly active in pursuit of its goal of international recognition in the Third World. On this see Troche, Alexander, Ulbricht und die Dritte Welt: Ost-Berlins ‘Kampf’ gegen die Bonner ‘Alleinvertretungsanmaßung’ (Erlangen: Palm & Enke, 1996)Google Scholar; Spranger, Hans-Joachim and Brock, Lothar, Die beiden deutschen Staaten in der Dritten Welt: eine Herausforderung für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1987)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In certain states, such as Algeria, this competition began even before independence. On this see Cahn, Jean-Paul and Müller, Klaus-Jürgen, La République fédérale d'Allemagne et la guerre d'Algerie, 1954–1962 (Paris: Lé Félin, 2003)Google Scholar; Mathilde von Bulow, ‘The Foreign Policy of the Federal Republic of Germany, Franco-German Relations, and the Algerian War’, Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 2006; Bougherara, Nassima, Les rapports franco-allemands à l'épreuve de la question algérienne (1955–1963) (Bern: Peter Lang, 2006)Google Scholar.

75 PRO, FO 371/160570 [CG 1072/24] FO Memorandum, 25 October 1961.

76 Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA).

77 Wolfgang Buss, ‘Sport and Human Rights in the Early Years of the German Democratic Republic’, 1999, available at www.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/1999/nsw/p64-68.pdf, 4.

78 Conversation between the State Department's J. J. Reinstein and an official of the British embassy, Washington, 29 October 1955, FRUS, ‘Central and Southeastern Europe’, 1955–57, XXVI (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1992), 554–5.

79 On this, see Giselher Spitzer, ‘Zwischen 1949 und 1952: Drei NOKs in Deutschland’, in NOK für Deutschland/Lämmer, Deutschland in der Olympischen Bewegung, 177–204.

80 Thus the umbrella GDR sports organisation, founded in 1957, was entitled the Deutscher Turn- und Sportbund (DTSB, ‘German Gymnastic and Sport Union’).

81 On the process whereby the SED appropriated sport for state ends, see Reinartz, Klaus, ‘Die Zweiteilung des DDR-Sports auf Beschluß der SED’, in Teichler, Hans Joachim and Reinartz, Klaus, eds., Das Leistungssportsystem der DDR in den 80er Jahren und im Prozeß der Wende (Schorndorf: Verlag Karl Hofmann, 1999), 55–85Google Scholar.

82 Supporters of the East German case cited as precedents the examples of Bohemia (whose NOC had been officially recognised despite Bohemia's being part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire) in 1900, 1908 and 1912 and Finland (a part of the Russian Empire) in 1908 and 1912.

83 PRO, FO 371/109555 [CS 1801/1] FO Report, ‘The DDR Application for Membership within the IOC’, annex to letter from Berenson, Cultural Relations Group to Political Advisor, British Military Government, Berlin, 27 April 1954. Burghley competed at the 1928 and 1932 Olympics and later served as president of the Amateur Athletic Association (AAA), president of the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) and as a member and vice-president of the IOC.

84 PRO, CAB 129/74, C (55) 83, 25 March 1955. As Arnold Wolfers noted in 1962: ‘If the restoration of the former territorial integrity of the country enjoyed top priority among German national goals, West Germany could bring it about at the price of turning Communist and joining the Soviet camp.’ Wolfers, Arnold, ‘The Goals of Foreign Policy’, in his Discord and Collaboration: Essays on International Politics (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1962), 79Google Scholar. On British fears that Germany might turn to the east, see Gossel, Daniel, Briten, Deutsche und Europa: Die Deutsche Frage in der britischen Außenpolitik, 1945–1962 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1999), 226Google Scholar. On this issue more generally, see Larres, Klaus, ‘Germany and the West: the “Rapallo Factor” in German Foreign Policy from the 1950s to the 1990s’, in Larres, Klaus and Panayi, Panikos, eds., The Federal Republic of Germany since 1949: Politics, Society and Economy Before and After Unification (London: Longman, 1996), 278–326Google Scholar.

85 Hill, Olympic Politics, 39.

86 PRO, FO 371/109555 [CS 1801/1] Barnes to Palliser, 30 April 1954. See also PRO, FO 371/109555 [CS 1801/2] Philip de Zuleta, FO Minute ‘International Olympic Committee’, 1 May 1954.

87 Miller, David, Athens to Athens: The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC, 1894–2004 (London and Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing, 2003), 139Google Scholar.

88 Extract from the minutes of the conference of the Executive Board of the IOC, Paris, 10 June 1955; ‘Entente between the two National Olympic Committees of Germany’, Bulletin du Comité International Olympique, 52 (1955), 34, 50Google Scholar.

89 ‘The National Olympic Committees: Germany (1895)’, Bulletin du Comité International Olympique, 64 (1958), 60 (emphasis in original).

90 PRO, FO 371/109555 [CS 1801/2] ‘Application by GDR for membership of the International Olympic Committee’, note by Michael Palliser, FO, 5 May 1954.

91 Hill, ‘The Cold War and the Olympic Movement’, 2.

92 Feld, Reunification and West German–Soviet Relations, 114.

93 Adenauer to the Bundestag, 22 September 1955, Verhandlungen des Deutschen Bundestages, 2. Wahlperiode, 5647.

94 ‘Statement by the Three Western Foreign Ministers on the Soviet Treaty with the DDR, September 28, 1955’. Heidelmeyer, Wolfgang and Hindrichs, Guenter, eds., Documents on Berlin 1943–1963, (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1963), 175Google Scholar.

95 Daume to Schröder, 29 January 1956. Cited in Geyer, ‘Der Kampf um nationale Repräsentation’, 58.

96 In both instances athletes from the FRG made up the majority of the combined team. The winter Olympic team consisted of fifty-eight athletes from the West and eighteen from the East. In Melbourne the numbers were 138 and thirty-seven respectively. Guttmann, The Games Must Go On, 154.

97 Miller, Athens to Athens, 139.

98 Brundage's Opening Address to the 60th Session of the IOC, Baden-Baden, 16 October 1963, Guttmann, The Games Must Go On, 155.

99 Greenberg, S., Whitaker's Olympic Almanac: An Encyclopaedia of the Olympic Games (London: The Stationary Office, 2000), 33Google Scholar.

100 In Melbourne and Rome the GDR claimed one and three gold medals respectively. Jahrbuch der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik 1961 (Berlin (Ost): Verlag die Wirtschaft, 1961), 404.

101 Federal Government Declaration, 28 June 1956. Siegler, Heinrich, Wiedervereinigung und Sicherheit Deutschland, 2nd edn (Bonn: Verlag für Zeit Achiv, 1957), 141–2Google Scholar. On the relationship between the Alleinvertretungsanspruch and the Hallstein Doctrine, see Benz, Wolfgang, ‘Die Bundesrepublik Deutschalnd 1949–1989’, in Weidenfeld, Werner and Zimmermanm, Hartmut, eds., Deutschland Handbuch: Eine doppelte Bilanz 1949–1989 (Munich/Viennna; Hanser, 1989), 53, 61Google Scholar.

102 Geyer, ‘Der Kampf um nationale Repräsentation’, 67.

103 This was the cause of Bonn's breaking of relations with Yugoslavia in 1957. On this see Sabrina Petra Ramet, ‘Yugoslavia and the Two Germanys’, in Verheyen and Søe, The Germans and Their Neighbours, 319 ff.; Ihme-Tuchel, Beate, ‘Das Bemühen der SED um die diplomatische Anerkennung durch Jugoslawien 1956/57’, Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, 42, 8 (1994), 695–702Google Scholar. The FRG also used foreign assistance aid to further its goals in this area. On this see Schmidt, Heide-Irene, ‘Pushed to the Front: The Foreign Assistance Policy of the Federal Republic of Germany, 1958–1971’, in Contemporary European History, 12, 4 (2003), 473–507CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104 PRO, FO 371/137398 [WG 1071/2] D. A. Logan to Philip de Zuleta (private secretary to Prime Minister Harold Macmillan), 10 January 1958.

105 Wentker, Hermann, ‘Die Außenpolitik der DDR’, Neue Politische Literatur, 46, 3 (2001), 396Google Scholar.

106 For example, End, Heinrich, Zweimal deutsche Aussenpolitik: Internationale Dimensionen des innerdeutschen Konflikts 1949–1972 (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, 1973), 43Google Scholar; Hanrieder, Wolfram, Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 170–209CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

107 On FRG economic power see Schmidt, H.-I., ‘“The Embarrassment of Strength”: Die deutsche Position im International Monetary System 1958–1968’, in Lehmkuhl, U., Wurm, C. and Zimmermann, H., eds., Deutschland, Großbritannien, Amerika: Politik, Gesellschaft und internationale Geschichte im 20. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag, 2003), 155–96Google Scholar.

108 British industry was frustrated with its inability to deal directly with the GDR. The Conservative peer, Lord Boothby, declared that ‘I do not see why we should be dictated to by Dr Adenauer. The West Germans are doing 50 times more trade with the East than we are.’ The Times, 13 March 1961.

109 Carr, ‘The Involvement of Politics’, 46.

110 Feinstein, State Symbols, 138–9.

111 Cabinet meeting of 26 November 1959, ‘Flagge der gesamtdeutschen olympischen Mannschaft’, Die Kabinettsprotokolle der Bundesregierung, vol. 12: 1959 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2002). Online version, available at www.bundesarchiv.de/kabinettsprotokolle/web/index.jsp.

112 Pabst, Ulrich, Sport: Medium der Politik? Der Neuaufbau des Sports in Deutschland nach dem 2. Weltkrieg und die innerdeutschen Sportbeziehungen bis 1961 (Berlin: Bartels & Wernitz, 1980), 252Google Scholar.

113 Dokumente zur Deutschlandpolitik (DzD) (Frankfurt: Alfred Metzner, 1976) series IV, vol. 3, 697. On the deterioration of the FRG position vis-à-vis the GDR on the issue of the Olympics at this time, see Blasius, Olympische Bewegung, 175 ff.

114 Thoß, Hendrik, ‘Diplomat der deutschen Einheit: Heinrich von Brentano und die bundesdeutsche Ostpolitik’, in Koch, Roland, ed., Heinrich von Brentano: Ein Wegbereiter der europäischen Integration (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2004), 214Google Scholar.

115 Balbier, Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn, 69–74.

116 Daume to Schröder, 7 December 1959. Quoted in Geyer, ‘On the Road to a German “Postnationalism”?’, 146.

117 Cabinet meeting of 9 December 1959, ‘Flagge der gesamtdeutschen olympischen Mannschaft’, Die Kabinettsprotokolle der Bundesregierung, vol. 12, 1959 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2002)Google Scholar. Online version available at www.bundesarchiv.de/kabinettsprotokolle/web/index.jsp.

118 The FRG team failed to turn up to play the GDR at the 1961 ice hockey world championships, as the West German government refused to countenance the prospect of the FRG team having to watch the raising of the GDR flag if the latter won. Balbier, ‘“Zu Gast bei Freunden”’, 5.

119 Feinstein, State Symbols, 51.

120 National Archives of the United States, College Park, MD (hereafter NACP): RG 59, Central Decimal Files 1960–63, 800.453/2–361 to 800.4531/8–1660, file: 800.4531/1–160, paper: 800.4531/1–160, Outgoing telegram from Herter to US embassy Bonn, 26 January 1960.

121 NACP: RG 59, Central Decimal Files 1960–63, 800.453/2–361 to 800.4531/8–1660, file: 800.4531/1–160, paper: 800.4531/1–160, outgoing telegram from Herter, State Department to USBER Berlin, 19 January 1960.

122 NACP: 59, Miscellaneous Records of the Bureau of Public Affairs 1944–62, Lot 65D472, Subject Files of the Policy Plans and Guidance Staff 1946–62, ‘Winter Olympics 1960’, State Department memorandum, 3 February 1960.

123 NACP: RG 59, Bureau of European Affairs, Office of German Affairs, State Department memorandum from Andrew Berding (Office of Political Affairs) to Deputy Under Secretary for Political Affairs Raymond A. Hare and Assistant Secretary for European Affairs Foy D. Kohler, 27 February 1960.

124 PRO, FO 371/160570 [CG 1072/24] FO Memorandum, 25 October 1961.

125 Adenauer, Konrad, Erinnerungen, 1955–1959 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1967), 468–71Google Scholar; Gossel, Briten, Deutsche und Europa, 189–202; Köhler, Henning, Adenauer: Eine Politische Biographie (Frankfurt a.M.: Propyläen, 1994), 1015, 1022Google Scholar.

126 PRO, CAB 129/106, C (61) 116, ‘Berlin’, memorandum by Lord Home, 26 July 1961.

127 Cabinet meeting of 21 September 1960, ‘Zehnjähriges Jubiläum des Deutschen Sportbundes’, Die Kabinetsprotokolle der Bundesregierung, vol. 13, 1960 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2003), 332 (n).

128 Carr, ‘The Use of Sport in the German Democratic Republic’, 125.

129 Cabinet meeting of 21 September 1960, ‘Zehnjähriges Jubiläum des Deutschen Sportbundes’, Die Kabinetsprotokolle der Bundesregierung, vol. 13, 1960 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2003), 332.

130 Daume to Schröder, 7 December 1959. Geyer, ‘Der Kampf um nationale Repräsentation’, 63.

131 This Anglo-American consensus was mirrored by thinking on the full spectrum of questions pertaining to Germany. On this see Hughes, Britain, Germany and the Cold War, 82–4, 90–111.

132 NACP: RG 59, Central Decimal Files 1960–63, 800.453/2–2262, State Department memorandum: L. D. Battle, executive secretary, to McGeorge Bundy, National Security Advisor, White House, 22 February 1962.

133 Geyer, ‘Der Kampf um nationale Repräsentation’, 83–4.

134 On sport in cold war Berlin, see Braun, Jutta and Hans Teichler, Joachim, eds., Sportstadt Berlin im Kalten Krieg: Prestigekämpfe und Systemwettstreit (Berlin: Christoph Links Verlag, 2006)Google Scholar.

135 PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/2] J. C. C. Bennett, Bonn, to J. S. Whitehead, FO, 21 January 1963.

136 PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/2] J. S. Whitehead, FO, to J. C. C. Bennett, Bonn, 15 February 1963.

137 PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/6] A. L. Southorn, Political Dept, British Military Government Berlin, to J. C. C. Bennett, Bonn, 14 March 1963. A number of issues were raised during the joint team negotiations for 1964, including confirmation of a mutual flag, anthem and uniform, as well as the status and sovereignty of West Berlin. PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/15] P. C. H. Holmer, British Military Government Berlin, to J. A. Robson, FO, highlighting issues raised in response to the all-German team proposal for 1964, July 15 1963.

138 PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/1A] Burghley to J. S. Whitehead, FO, 11 January 1963; PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/5] Burghley to J. S. Whitehead, FO, 14 February 1963; PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/15] Memorandum from P. C. H. Holmer, British Military Government Berlin, to FO, 15 July 1963; PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/4] Oscar State, General Secretary of the International Weightlifting Federation, to Burghley, 9 January 1963; PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/4] Oscar State to Otto Meyer, General Secretary of the IOC, 9 January 1963; PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/6B] W. Marsden, UK delegation NATO, Paris, to P. C. H. Holmer, FO, 30 April 1965.

139 PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG 1801/1] J. S. Whitehead, FO, to Burghley, 31 January 1963.

140 PRO, FO 371/170832 [FK 1801/9] FO to Washington, 9 October 1963.

141 PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG1801/1] J. C. C. Bennett, Bonn, to J. S. Whitehead, FO, 4 January 1963.

142 See especially PRO, FO 371/169325 [CG1801/15A] FO Memorandum, P. C. H. Holmer, 29 July 1963.

143 Carr, ‘The Use of Sport in the German Democratic Republic’, 126.

144 Carr, ‘The Involvement of Politics’, 40–50.

145 Balbier, Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn, 99–102.

146 Hill, ‘The Cold War and the Olympic Movement’, 2.

147 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/10] FO Aide-Mémoire, annex to letter from Herbert Blankenhorn, FRG ambassador to Foreign Secretary Michael Stewart, 13 May 1965.

148 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/10] P. C. H. Homer, FO, 4 June 1965.

149 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/12 B] Brundage to the German NOCs, 2 June 1965.

150 PRO, FCO 36/316 ‘Games of the XVIIIth Olympiad’, Sir Francis Rundall, Tokyo, to Foreign Secretary Patrick Gordon Walker, 4 November 1964.

151 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/7] Sir Frank Roberts, Bonn, to FO, 15 April 1965.

152 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/8] Burghley to FO, 30 April 1965.

153 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/7] W. B. J. Ledwidge, FO to Sir F. Roberts, Bonn, 17 May 1965.

154 Observer, 11 May 1965.

155 PRO, FO 371/183165, [RG 1801/12] Brundage to the German NOCs, 2 June 1965.

156 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/24] Burghley to P. C. H. Holmer, FO, 8 November 1965.

157 NACP: RG 59, Bureau of European Affairs, Lot 70D4, note from Alfred Puhan (Office of German Affairs) to Nicholas Rodis, 15 November 1965 (emphasis in original). ‘Salonfähig’ might be translated as ‘being acceptable in polite society’.

158 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/2] FO Minute, R. Cecil, 10 February 1965.

159 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/10] FO Memorandum, W. B. J. Ledwidge, Bonn, 2 June 1965.

160 PRO, FO 371/189305, [RG 1801/14] Heinz Dröge, German delegation to NATO to Jaenicke, Assistant Secretary General for Political Affairs, NATO, 7 September 1966.

161 Balbier, ‘“Zu Gast bei Freunden”’, 5; Balbier, Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn, 158–9.

162 Gray, Germany's Cold War, 190–1.

163 Discussion (chaired by von Lahr) at the Auswärtiges Amt, 4 November 1965. Geyer, ‘Der Kampf um nationale Repräsentation’, 86. At the same time Daume took the opportunity to push sport up the political agenda domestically, declaring in one press release that ‘we want to prove that our free society is not inferior to an authoritarian one’. Balbier, ‘“Zu Gast bei Freunden”’, 6.

164 NACP: RG 59, Central Files: telegram from the US embassy, Bonn, to Department of State, 8 October 1965.

165 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/24] Burghley to P. C. H. Holmer, FO, 8 November 1965. See also Gray, Germany's Cold War, 312 n.

166 Balbier, Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn, 163–8.

167 PRO, PREM 13/329, Wilson–Erhard meeting, Bonn, 8 March 1965.

168 PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/20] Sir Frank Roberts, Bonn, to FO, 9 October 1965; PRO, FO 371/183165 [RG 1801/21] H. F. Stierer, British Military Government Berlin, to J. L. Bullard, Bonn, 13 October 1965.

169 Schröder–Rusk–de Murville–Gore-Booth meeting, Paris, 13 December 1965. FRUS, ‘Berlin; Germany’, 1964–68, XV (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1999), 329.

170 PRO, FO 371/189305 [CS 180/8] Roberts to Stewart, 16 May 1966.

171 PRO, PREM 13/933, Wilson–Brown–Erhard–Schröder meeting, Downing Street, 23 May 1966.

172 PRO, FO 371/189305 [RG 1801/15] Communiqué, British embassy, Bonn, to FO, 6 October 1966.

173 See, e.g., the speeches of Chancellor Kiesinger on 13 December 1966 and 17 June 1967: DzD, series V, vol. I, 60, 1321–2.

174 GDR attempts to join the United Nations in the mid-1960s caused great disquiet in the FRG (Hughes, Britain, Germany and the Cold War, 130). Domestic alarm in the FRG caused questions such as why the FRG was not a UN member, to be asked of the government. On this see Dröge, Heinz, Münch, Fritz and von Puttkamer, Ellinor, The Federal Republic of Germany and the United Nations (New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1967)Google Scholar.

175 On the establishment of relations between the FRG and Romania, see Meissner, Boris, Die Deutsche Ostpolitik 1961–1970: Kontinuität und Wandel: Dokumentation (Cologne: Verlag Wissenschaft & Politik, 1970), 181Google Scholar.

176 Wilson later hailed this as a turning point in Bonn's relations with the Eastern bloc. Wilson, Harold, The Labour Government 1964–70: A Personal Record (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson and Michael Joseph, 1971), 82Google Scholar.

177 On 15 February 1967, State Secretary Lahr advised against re-establishing relations with Yugoslavia, as it would cause a large number of other countries to establish relations with the GDR (especially in the Third World). AAPD, 1967, I (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1998), 282. For Brandt's robust rebuttal of this stance see his letter to Chancellor Kiesinger, AAPD, 1967, vol. I, 412–19.

178 Bahr to Brandt, 3 November 1967: AAPD, 1967, III, 1486–7. By the 1980s Bahr was going so far as to state that even paying lip service to the goal of reunification was ‘hypocritical’. Marsh, David, The Germans: A People at the Crossroads (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990), 58Google Scholar.

179 PRO, FCO 36/317 [78] ‘East German and North Korean representation at the Olympic Games’, E. Young to Faber, Rhodesian Political Dept., FCO, 29 January 1968. See also PRO, FCO 13/2340, ‘Rhodesia's Participation in Olympic Games in Mexico: Moves to Enforce their Exclusion’, FCO Memorandum.

180 PRO, FCO 36/317 [88] ‘German Participation in the Tokyo Olympic Games’, A. D. S Goodall, Western Dept. FCO, to Faber, 13 February 1968.

181 Miller, Athens to Athens, 175; Hill, Olympic Politics, 42; Balbier, Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn, 163.

182 ‘Extracts from the minutes of the 67th Session of the International Olympic Committee. Mexico City, 7th–11th October 1968’. Newsletter (Olympic Review), 15 December 1968, 599.

183 Balbier, Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn, 163.

184 PRO, FCO 7/665 [151] ‘East German Participation in International Sports Events’, conversation between Lord Exeter and H. F. T. Morgan, 18 September 1968.

185 One historian cites the 1968 Olympic decision, along with the GDR's signature of the Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963, as having put the ‘official recognition of the GDR on the political agenda’. Bauerkämper, ‘It Took Three to Tango’, 52.

186 In reality the FRG had little option, given that the IOC invited the organising committee of the Munich games to report, by the end of 1968, whether the new system could run smoothly. Balbier, Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn, 163.

187 PRO, FCO 34/45 [16] Chalfont to D. H. Howell, Dept. of Education and Science, February 1969.

188 PRO, FCO 33/476, Brimelow minute, 19 November 1969. Cited in Niedhart, Gottfried, ‘Zustimmung und Irritationen: Die Westmächte und die deutsche Ostpolitik 1969/70’, in Lehmkuhl, Ursula, Wurm, Clemens A. and Zimmermann, Hubert, eds., Deutschland, Großbritannien, Amerika: Politik, Gesellschaft und Internationale Geschichte im 20. Jahrhundert (Wiesbaden and Stuttgart: Steiner, 2003), 234Google Scholar.

189 Third meeting of the Special Committee for Sport and the Olympic Games, 4 December 1969. Quoted in Balbier, ‘“Zu Gast bei Freunden”’, 6–7.

190 PRO, FCO 33/1455 [21] J. D. N. Hartland-Swann, FCO, to N. Bayne, Bonn, 14 April 1971. On GDR propaganda leading up to the Munich Olympics, see Balbier, Kalter Krieg auf der Aschenbahn, 209–13.

191 PRO, FCO 33/1455 [30] W. Unwin, Western European Dept, FCO, to W Schwab, Dept. of Environment and Science, 11 May 1971.

192 Guttmann, The Games Must Go On, 157.

193 Valérin, Harry, Olympia 1972: München–Kiel–Sapporo (Munich: Südwest, 1972), 25Google Scholar.

194 Brandt speech to the Bundestag, 28 October 1969. Quoted in Balbier, ‘“Zu Gast bei Freunden”’, 7. On this see also Uta Andrea Balbier, ‘“Der Welt das moderne Deutschland vorstellen”: Die Eröffnungsfeier der Spiele der XX Olympiade in München 1972’, in Paulmann, Auswärtige Repräsentationen, 105–19.

195 Geyer, ‘Der Kampf um nationale Repräsentation’, 86.

196 Brandt, Willy, Begegnungen und Einsichten (Hamburg: Hoffman & Campe Verlag, 1976), 442Google Scholar.

197 Falin, Valentin, Politische Erinnerungen (Munich: Droemer Knaur, 1993), 291–2Google Scholar.

198 Schneider, Werner, ed., Die Olympischen Spiele 1972: München-Kiel-Sapporo: Mit Berichten und Dokumenten zu den tragischen Ereignissen von München (Munich: Bertelsmann Verlag, 1972), 13Google Scholar.

199 Honecker, Erich, From My Life (Oxford: Pergamon, 1981), 232Google Scholar.

200 Larres, ‘Britain and the GDR in the 1960s’, in Noakes, Wende and Wright, Britain and Germany in Europe, 215.

201 During the 1974 football World Cup the GDR defeated the FRG 1–0 in Hamburg (although the West German team eventually won the tournament). An East German dissident, having watched the match in the hope of seeing the representatives of communism repression humbled, later recalled: ‘The worst of it all was the 300 Party bosses in the stands, waving their little flags with the East German sign, clapping at all the wrong moments because they knew nothing about football.’ Kuper, Simon, Football against the Enemy (London: Orion, 1994), 21Google Scholar.

202 Weizäcker, Richard von, speech to the Convention of the Evangelical Church, Düsseldorf, 8 June 1985, quoted in Gebhard Schweigler, ‘German Questions or the Shrinking of Germany’, in Larrabee, F. Stephen, ed., The Two German States and European Security (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989), 318 nGoogle Scholar.

203 Margaret Thatcher to Sir Denis Fellows, 20 May 1980, available at www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=104366

204 Information GDR, 682.

205 Quoted in Steinbruckner, Bruno F., ‘Historical Setting: 1945 to 1990’, in Solsten, Eric, ed., Germany: A Country Study, 3rd edn (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996), 124Google Scholar. Gorbachev also told the GDR leadership that ‘if we remain behind, life punishes us straightaway’, Ash, Timothy Garton, In Europe's Name: Germany and the Divided Continent (London: Vintage, 1994), 594 nGoogle Scholar. Gorbachev's comment is also often reproduced as ‘Life itself punishes those who delay.’ Quoted in Niklasson, Tomas, ‘The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, 1988–89: Interactions between Domestic Change and Foreign Policy’, in Pridham, Geoffrey and Vanhanen, Tatu, eds., Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 212Google Scholar.