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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 September 2008
1 See Dietrich Loeber, A., Laurence, P., Kitching, and Vardys, V. Stanley, eds., Regional Identity under Soviet Rule: The Case of the Baltic States (Kiel: University of Kiel/Hackettstown, NJ: Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies, 1990).Google Scholar
2 Plakans, Andrejs, ‘An Historical Introduction’, in The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, compiled by Smith, Inese A. and Grunts, Marita V., World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 161 (Oxford/ Santa Barbara, CA: Clio Press, 1993), xiii.Google Scholar
3 Ibid.
4 Cf. the critical commentary by Kreslins, Janis A., Baltic Studies Newsletter, Vol. 18, no. 1 (1994), 27.Google Scholar
5 The name of Alfonsas Eidintas, now the Lithuanian Ambassador to the United States, for example, is recorded as Alfonsas ‘Eiduritas’ (no. 99). The commentary on my Lithuania Awakening (no. 129) erroneously called me ‘a member’ of the Sajudis congress in 1988 – I participated, but I was neither a ‘member’ nor a delegate.
6 Hiden, John and Salmon, Patrick, The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century (London: Longman, 1991).Google Scholar
7 Misiunas, Romuald and Taagepera, Rein, The Baltic States: Years of Dependence 1940–1990, expanded and updated edition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).Google Scholar On Kaliningrad's ‘newsworthiness’, see also Romuald Misiunas, ‘This Tiny Enclave in Europe could Explode’, Christian Science Monitor, 6 April 1994; Bohlen, Christine, ‘Is City Acquiring a German Accent?’, New York Times, 22 April 1994.Google Scholar
8 Taagepera, Rein, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder: Westview, 1993).Google Scholar On the Politburo's concern with Taagepera, see Rossiiskie vesti, no. 16 (June 1992).
9 Raun, Toivo U., Estonia and the Estonians, 2nd ed. (Stanford: Hoover Press, 1991).Google Scholar
10 Vares, Peeter, and Osipova, Olga, Pokhishchenie Evropy ili Baltiiskii vopros v mezhdunarodnykh otnosheniiakh XX veka (Tallinn: Izd. Estonskoi Entsiklopedii, 1992).Google Scholar
11 Lieven, Anatol, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence (thereafter Lieven, Baltic Revolution) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).Google Scholar
12 Milosz, Czeslaw, ‘Swing Shift in the Baltics’, New York Review of Books, 4 Nov. 1993, 12–16.Google Scholar
13 See also Korab-Żebryk, Roman, Biala ksi ga w obronie Armii Krajowej na Wilenszczyznie (Lublin: Wydawnictwo Lubelskie, 1991)Google Scholar, which presents itself as a work ‘written above all for the Lithuanian youth who have heard so much about the Home Army in recent years but do not know the truth about it’, 5. Korab-Żebryk was also one of three authors of a history of the AK that the Lithuanian weekly Atgimimas (no. 46, 1993) asserted had been specially prepared for secret distribution by the Polish embassy in Lithuania.
14 See Senn, Alfred Erich, The Great Powers, Lithuania and the Vilna Question, 1920–1929 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1966)Google Scholar; Zepkaite, Regina, Vilniaus istorijos atkarpa 1939–1940 (Vilnius: Mokslas, 1990)Google Scholar; Lossowski, Piotr, Litwa a sprawy polskie 1939–1940 (Warsaw: Panstwowe wydawnictwo naukowe, 1982).Google Scholar
15 See Komunist, LietuvosPartija skaiˇiais (Vilnius, 1976), 120–3.Google Scholar
16 For an example of the memory that the Lithuanians have of this experience, see Garbšstiene, Onute, Hell in Ice (Kaunas: 'Ethnos 91, 1992).Google Scholar Garbštiene was deported in 1941, and this is her diary of fifteen years in Siberia. The Lithuanian original is published as Onute Alksninyte-Garbštiene, Sibire … tremtiniųžeme. Dienoraštis 1942–1956 (Vilnius: Lietuvos Rašytoj Sajungos leidykla, 1993).
17 Lieven, , Baltic Revolution, 139–58Google Scholar, makes a determined effort to offer a balanced picture of the problem. See also Shtromas, Aleksandras, The Jewish and Gentile Experience of the Holocaust: A Personal Perspective (Assumption College Eleventh Annuel Rabbi Joseph Klein Lecture, 10 April 1989), and Istvan Deak, ‘Heroism in Hell’, New York Review, 8 Nov. 1990Google Scholar, a review of Tory, Avrahm, Surviving the Holocaust: The Kovno Ghetto Diary (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990).Google Scholar For a Jewish account, see Levin, Dov, Fighting Back: Lithuanian Jewry's Armed Resistance to the Nazis, 1941–1945 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985)Google Scholar; emigré Lithuanians frequently cite Prunskis, Juozas, Lithuania's Jews and the Holocaust (Chicago: Lithuanian-American Council, 1979).Google Scholar For a recent account of the history of the Jews in Lithuania, see Agranovskii, G. and Guzenberg, I., Litovskii Ierusalim (Vilnius: Lituanus, 1992).Google Scholar On the events in Latvia, see Ezergailis, Andrew, The Holocaust in Latvia: The Missing Center (Riga: Historical Institute of Latvia, forthcoming).Google Scholar
18 On the politics of the commission's effort to write history by government commission, see Bezymenskii, Lev, ‘Tainy pakta: Kak rabotala komissiia Iakovleva‘, Sovershenno sekretno, no. 12, 1991.Google Scholar
19 Gore, Ilga and Stranga, Aivars, Latvija neatakaribas mijkresli (Riga, 1992).Google Scholar
20 For examples of the new documentation emerging from diplomatic archives, see Ot pakta Molotova-Ribbentropa do dogovora o bazakh (Tallinn: Periodika, 1990); Rokovye gody 1939–1940. Sobytiia v Pribaltiiskikh gosudarstvakh i Finliandii na osnove sovetskikh dokumentov i materialov (Tallinn: Olion, 1990).
21 Urbšys, Juozas, Lietuva lemtingiaisiais 1939–1940 metais (Vilnius: Mintis, 1988)Google Scholar, also published as Arsiminimai (Chicago, 1988). For a survey of the United States' policy of non-recognition of the incorporation of the Baltic republics, see Vitas, Robert A., The United States and Lithuania: The Stimson Doctrine of Nonrecognition (New York: Praeger, 1990).Google Scholar
22 Kreve's account, originally written in Lithuanian, first appeared in English in 1950, in the United States House of Representatives, Third Interim Report of the Select Committee on Communist Aggression, 83rd Congress, 2nd session 1954 (repr. Buffalo: William S. Hein, 1972), 450–63. The Lithuanian text appears in Kreve, Vincas, Bolševikų invazija ir liaudies vyriausybe [Atsiminimai] (Vilnius: Mintis, 1992).Google Scholar
23 Truska, Liudas and Kancevičius, Vytautas, Lietuva Stalino ir Hitlero verpetuose (Vilnius: Mintis, 1990)Google Scholar, originally published in serial form in the daily newspaper Komjaunimo tiesa. See also Remeris, Mykolas, Lietuvos sovietizacija 1940–1941 (Vilnius: Lituanus, 1989)Google Scholar, a work completed in the spring of 1944; Lietuvos aneksija. 1940 metu dokumentai (Vilnius: Periodika, 1990), compiled by Leonas Gudaitis from the archives of Kazys Škirpa and Matas Krygeris.
24 One exception might be Šuziedelis, Saulius, ed., History and Commemoration in the Baltic: The Nazi–Soviet Pact, 1939–1989 (Chicago: Lithuanian-American Community, 1989)Google Scholar, which translates speeches by Truska and others.
25 Crowe, David M., The Baltic States and the Great Powers: Foreign Relations, 1938–1940 (Boulder: Westview, 1993).Google Scholar
26 For a ‘guide’ to the Turauskas archive, see Turauskas, Eduardas, Lietuvos nepriklausomybes netenkant (Chicago: Draugas, n.d.)Google Scholar, the manuscript for which is in the Turauskas collection.
27 The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War, ed. Hiden, John and Lane, Thomas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
28 Lieven, Baltic Revolution, 80, discusses the problem of ‘resistance’ in 1940; for the Lithuanians, the cabinet's deliberations of 15 June were decisive in this question.
29 See Senn, Alfred Erich and Motulaite, Violeta, ‘The Lithuanian Concept of Statehood’, Nationalities Papers, Vol. 21, no. 2 (1993), 25–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For an example of this problem see the discussion of language in Vzaimovliianie i vzaimoobogashchenie iazykov narodov SSSR (Moscow: Nauka, 1987). Baltic philologists have been working determinedly to eliminate Russianisms from their native languages.
30 See Lietuvos kov ir kančių istorija, I: Lietuvos gyventojų tremimai, 1941, 1945‐1652. Dokumentų rinkinys (Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, 1994).
31 Vaigauskas, G. K., Lietuvių nacionalistų kenkejiška veikla ir kova su ja, trans, from Russian (Kaunas: Laisves kovų archyvas, 1992).Google Scholar
32 Clemens, Walter C.Jnr, Baltic Independence and Russian Empire (New York: St Martin's Press, 1991).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33 Gerner, Kristian and Hedlund, Stefan, The Baltic States and the End of the Soviet Empire (London:, Routledge, 1993).Google Scholar For further consideration of how to apply social science theories to the Baltic, see Motyl, Alexander J., ed., Thinking Theoretically about Soviet Nationalities: History and Comparison in the Study of the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992).Google Scholar
34 See Ligachev, Egor, Zagadka Gorbacheva (Novosibirsk: Interbuk, 1991)Google Scholar, passim; Katrina Vanden Heuvel, ‘Comrade Ligachev tells his side’, Nation, 2 Dec. 1991. On the events of January 1991 in Lithuania, see Senn, Alfred Erich, Crisis in Lithuania, January 1991 (Chicago: Akiraciai, 1991).Google Scholar
35 See Iu. N. Krylov, Litva v 1919 g.: Revoliutsiia ili diktatura kompartii? (Istochnikovedenie problemy) (Vilnius, 1990) for an account of the short-lived Soviet administration of 1919; Litva v 1940 godu (Vilnius, 1990), a collection of documents reflecting the annexation of 1940 in a way sympathetic to the Soviet regime; and V. Bikulicihus, Litva segodnia. Vozrozhdenie, otchuzhdenie, ottorzhenie? … (Vilnius, 1990) for an account of contemporary events. Louis Strong's Anna The New Lithuania (New York: Workers' Library Publishers, 1941)Google Scholar features prominently in all the pro-Moscow literature.
36 Bonosky, Philip, Devils in Amber – The Baltics (New York: International Publishers, 1992).Google Scholar
37 See Bakatin, Vadim, Izbavlenie ot KGB (Moscow: Novosti, 1992)Google Scholar; Chuev, F., Sto sorok besed s Molotovym. Chueva, Iz dnevnika F. (Moscow: Terra, 1991).Google Scholar For a pro-Lithuanian account in Russian, see Efremov, Georgii, My liudi drug drugu. Litva: budni svobody 1988–1989 (Moscow: Progress, 1990).Google Scholar
38 Joenniemi, , Pertti, and Veres, Peeter, New Actors on the International Arena: The Foreign Policies of the Baltic Countries, Research Report no. 50 (Tampere, Finland: Tampere Peace Research Institute, 1993).Google Scholar
39 V. Stanley Vardys, ‘Lithuanian National Politics’, and Juris Dreifelds, ‘Latvian National Rebirth’, in Problems of Communism, July-Aug. 1989. Some other works meriting mention are: Trapans, Jan Arved, Impatient for Freedom? The Baltic Struggle for Independence (London: Institute for European Defence and Strategic Studies, 1990)Google Scholar; Jan Arved Trapans, ed., Toward Independence: The Baltic Movements (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991)Google Scholar, which covers the events of 1988 and the first half of 1989; Smith, Graham, ed., The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (London: Longman, 1990)Google Scholar, which contains essays by Smith, (on Latvia), Kionka, Riina (on Estonia) and Vardys, (on Lithuania); Baltic Options: Ethnic Rivalry or Regional Cooperation, East European Studies, Occasional Papers, no. 39 (Washington, DC: The Woodrow Wilson Center, 1993).Google Scholar
40 Plasseraud, Yves and Moulonguet, Francis, eds., Pays baltes. Estonia, Lettonie, Lituanie: Le reveil (Paris: Autrement, 1991)Google Scholar; Plasseraud, Yves, Les Etats baltes (Paris: Montchrestien, 1992).Google Scholar See also Wiszniewski, Irena, Paroles dégelées. Ces Lituaniens que l'on disait Soviétiques (N.p: Calmann-Lévy, 1990)Google Scholar, an account of interviews conducted during the summer of 1989; another traveller's account, this one written in English by a person of Estonian heritage, is Thomson, Clare, The Singing Revolution: A Political Journey through the Baltic States (London: Michael Joseph, 1992).Google Scholar
41 Pistolkohrs's, GerdDeutsche Länder. Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas (Siedler, 1993)Google Scholar was originally to be included in this review, but was not available from the publisher. See also Die Unabhängigkeit der baltischen Länder: Geschichte – Probleme – Perspektiven (Marburg: Johann-Gottfried-Herder-Institut, 1993); Ruffmann, Karl-Heinz, Deutsche und Litauer in der Zwischenkriegszeit. Erinnerungen eines Memelländers, Überlegungen eines Historikers (Lüneburg: Verlag Norddeutsches Kulturwerk, 1991).Google Scholar
42 Auch wir sind Europa: Zur jüngeren Geschichte und aktuellen Entwicklung des Baltikums (Berlin: Aufbau Taschenbuch Verlag, 1991).
43 See Prunskiene, Kazimiera, Leben für Litauen: Auf dem Weg in die Unabhängigkeit (Berlin: Ullstein, 1992)Google Scholar; Landsbergis, Vytautas, Atgavę viltį (N.p., n.d.); Laisves byla (Vilnius: Lietuvos aidas, 1992)Google Scholar; Brazauskas, Algirdas, Interviu Lietuvos radijui (Vilnius: LKC CK Leidykla, 1990)Google Scholar; Brazauskas, Algirdas, Lietuviškos skyrybos (Vilnius: Politika, 1992).Google Scholar On earlier memoir material published in Lithuania, see Senn, Alfred Erich, ‘The Political Culture of Independent Lithuania: A Review Essay’, Journal of Baltic Studies, Vol. 23, no. 3 (1992), 3077–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on Landsbergis's speeches, see idem, ‘Metmenys V. Landsbergio politinei biografijai’, Akiračiai, no. 8 (1991).Google Scholar
44 Idem, Lithuania Awakening (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990)Google Scholar, trans, Lithuanian. Bundanti Lietuva (Vilnius: Mokslo ir Enciklopedijų Leidykla, 1992).Google Scholar
45 The Lithuanians are, of course, not alone in facing such a problem. Cf. the discussions in Poland, in which Milosz also figured, in Kaufman, Michael T., ‘When the Bedbugs Ate the Fleas – Politics and Writing in Poland’, New York Times Book Review, 20 April 1986.Google Scholar
46 See Tiesa, 11 March 1993; Lietuvos aidas, 30 June 1993.
47 The Road to Negotiations with the U.S.S.R., Vol. 1, 2nd rev. ed. (Vilnius: State Publishing Centre, 1991); Negotiations with the Russian Federation Concerning the Withdrawal of Russian Military Forces from the Territory of the Republic of Lithuania (Vilnius: Publishing House of the Supreme Council of Lithuania, 1992).