No CrossRef data available.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 03 June 2009
By 1860, Cuba had become Spain's leading plantation colony in the New World, producing cash crops such as sugar, coffee, and tobacco for export. Cuba devoted so much effort to cash crops that the colony found it necessary to import foodstuffs to feed its slave and free populations. Among the essential foodstuffs that Cuba imported were dried beef from Venezuela and beef cattle from Florida. Venezuela, a Spanish colony that achieved its independence in 1821, and Florida, a Spanish colony acquired by the United States in 1821, had become Cuba's leading beef suppliers by the mid-nineteenth century.
1 Thomas, Hugh, Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom (New York: Harper and Row. 1971). 109–35.Google Scholar
2 Humboldt, Alexander von, The Island of Cuba, Thrasher, J. S., trans. (1856; rpt. New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), 317CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Akerman, Joe A. Jr.,, Florida Cowman. A History of Florida Cattle Raising (Kissimmee, Fla.: Florida Cattlemen's Association. 1976). 100–101.Google Scholar
3 White, C. Langdon and Thompson, John, “The Llanos—A Neglected Grazing Resource.” Journal of Range Management, 8 (January 1955), 14.Google Scholar
4 See Myers, J. G., “Notes on Vegetation of the Venezuelan Llanos.” Journal of Ecology, 21 (08 1933). 338–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; White, and Thompson, , "The Llanos." 11–12Google Scholar; White, C. Langdon, “Cattle Raising: A Way of Life in the Venezuelan Llanos.” Scientific Monthly. 83 (08 1956), 125.Google Scholar
5 Eastwick, Edward B., Venezuela; or, Sketches of Life in a South-American Republic (London: Chapman and Hall, 1868), 261Google Scholar; Rouse, John E., The Criollo: Spanish Cattle in the Americas (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1977). 61–62, 124–25Google Scholar; White, , "Cattle Raising," 124.Google Scholar
6 Bishko, Charles J., “The Peninsular Background of Latin American Cattle Ranching,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 32 (11 1952), 494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7 White, and Thompson, , “The Llanos,” 13–14Google Scholar; Paez, Don Ramon, Wild Scenes in South America; or, Life in the Llanos of Venezuela (New York: Charles Scribner. 1862), 28–29.Google Scholar
8 Sullivan, Edward, Rambles and Scrambles in North and South America (London: Richard Bentley. 1852), 403. A herd of forty to fifty thousand cattle would have yielded eight to ten thousand marketable beeves each year.Google Scholar
9 Myers, , “Notes on Vegetation,” 347Google Scholar; White, , “Cattle Raising,” 125Google Scholar; Paez, , Wild Scenes, 185.Google Scholar
10 Paez, , Wild Scenes, 175–93Google Scholar; Sullivan, , Rambles and Scrambles, 390, 393, 399.Google Scholar
11 Rouse, , The Criollo, 125Google Scholar; Alexander, von Humboldt, Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America, during the Years 1749–1804, Ross, Thomasina. trans. and ed. (London: George Bell and Sons, 1889). 11, 137–38.Google Scholar To produce tasajo, workers cut the back meat from a cow into long strips, which they salted and dried in the sun. Each cow yielded 4 or 5 arrobas (100 to 125 pounds) of dried beef. See Paez, , Wild Scenes, 33–34Google Scholar; Humboldt, von, Personal Narrative, 11, 138.Google Scholar
12 United States Census Office, Agriculture in the United States in 1860 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1864), 18.Google Scholar
13 Edmisten, Joe A., “The Ecology of the Florida Pine Flatwoods" (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 1963), 1–4, 6, 11, 13Google Scholar; Lewis, L. H., Beef Cattle in Florida, Florida Department of Agriculture Bulletin no. 28 (Gainesville: University of Florida, 1944), 117.Google Scholar
14 Kirk, W. G., Shealy, A. L.. and Knapp, Bradford, Jr., Weight Changes of Cattle on a Florida Range, Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin no. 418 (Gainesville: University of Florida. 1945), 18, 22Google Scholar; Rummell, Robert S., “Beef Cattle Production and Range Practices in South Florida,” Journal of Range Management, 10 (03 1957), 75–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15 Rouse, , The Criollo, 186.Google Scholar
16 Kennedy, Stetson, Palmetto Country (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1942), 216.Google Scholar
17 Warner, Joe G., Biscuits and 'Ta?ers: A History of Cattle Ranching in Manatee County (St. Petersburg: Great Outdoors Pub.. 1980). 2, 5–6.Google Scholar
18 Otto, John S., “Hillsborough County (1850): A Community in the South Florida Flatwoods,” Florida Historical Quarterly, 62 (10 1983), 181–82, 191.Google Scholar
19 Data on John Lanier's cattle ranch are derived from the manuscript returns of the Eighth United States Census (1860) for Hillsborough County, Florida, Schedule 1: Free Inhabitants, Schedule 2: Slave Inhabitants, and Schedule 4: Agriculture, on microfilm at the National Archives, Washington, D. C., and the Robert Manning Strozier Library, Florida State University, Tallahassee. Since Florida cattle ranchers routinely marketed a tenth of their herds each year. Lanier's 1,900 cattle would have annually yielded about 190 marketable beeves. See Otto, , “Hillsborough County.” 189.Google Scholar
20 Otto, . “Hillsborough County,” 191Google Scholar; Stoddard, H. L.. “Use of Fire in Pine Forests and Game Lands of the Deep Southeast,” Proceedings of the First Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference(Tallahassee:Tall Timbers Research Station, 1962), 33.Google Scholar
21 See Warner, , Biscuits and 'Taters. 18–23Google Scholar; Otto, John S.. “Florida's Cattle-Ranching Frontier: Hillsborough County (1860).” Florida Historical Quarterly, 63 (07 1984). 79, 82.Google Scholar
22 For example, see Strickon, Arnold, “The Euro-American Ranching Complex.” in Man, Culture, and Animals: The Role of Animals in Human Ecological Adjustments. Leeds, Anthony and Vayda, Andrew, eds. (Washington, D. C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1965), 229Google Scholar; Grigg, D. B., The Agricultural Systems of the World: An Evolutionary Approach (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 243–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dary, David, Cowboy Culture: A Saga of Five Centuries (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1981), 4–26.Google Scholar
23 See Rouse, , The Criollo, 27–88Google Scholar; Fred, Kniffen, “The Western Cattle Complex: Notes on Differentiation and Diffusion,” Western Folklore, 12 (07 1953), 182–85Google Scholar; Dary, , Cowboy Culture, 44–104.Google Scholar
24 White, and Thompson, , “The Llanos,” 13Google Scholar; Boyd-Bowman, Peter, “Patterns of Spanish Emigration to the Indies until 1600,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 56 (11 1976). 583–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25 Bishko, , “Peninsular Background,” 495.Google Scholar
26 See Bishko, Charles J., “The Castilian as Plainsman: The Medieval Ranching Frontier in La Mancha and Extremadura,” in The New World Looks at Its History, Lewis, Archibald R. and McGann, Thomas F., eds. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1963), 49, 55–56Google Scholar; idem, “Peninsular Background,” 496–513.Google Scholar
27 See Rouse, , The Criollo, 61–62.Google Scholar
25 The New World origins of the Hispanic-American lazo are discussed in Dary, , Cowboy Culture, 21, 31–35.Google Scholar
29 See Sullivan, , Rambles, and Scrambles, , 401–2Google Scholar; Col. Hamilton, J. P.. Travels through the Interior Provinces of Colombia (London: John Murray, 1827), I. 202Google Scholar; Paez, . Wild Scenes, 181, 192–93.Google Scholar
30 White, and Thompson, , “The Llanos.” 13–14.Google Scholar
31 Arnade, Charles W., “Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida. 1513–1763,” Agricultural History, 35 (07 1961), 116–24Google Scholar; Akerman, , Florida Cowman, 2–16.Google Scholar
32 Vignoles, Charles, Observations upon the Floridas (New York: Bliss and White. 1823). 106–7Google Scholar; Gray, Lewis C.. History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (Gloucester. Mass.: Peter Smith, 1958), 11, 901Google Scholar; Rouse, , The Criollo, 186.Google Scholar
33 Otto, . “Hillsborough County,” 182, 184, 186, 189, 191Google Scholar; idem. “Florida's Cattle-Ranching Frontier,” 72, 76–77, 79.sGoogle Scholar
34 See Pate, John B.. History of Turner County (Atlanta: Stein Printing Co., 1933). 29–31, 36–37, 41–42Google Scholar; Ham, Julia E., “Old Canoochee Backwoods Sketches,” Georgia Historical Quarterly, 24 (03 1940), 382–83Google Scholar; Pringle, Elizabeth W. A., Chronicles of Chicora Wood (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923), 17–18.Google Scholar
35 Jordan, Terry G., Trail to Texas: Southern Roots of Western Cattle Ranching (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), 38–41.Google Scholar
36 Bowling, G. A.. “The Introduction of Cattle into Colonial North America.” Journal of Dairy Science, 25 (02 1942), 149–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37 [Wilson, Samuel]. An Account of the Province of Carolina in America (London: G. Larkin, 1682). 7Google Scholar; [Norris, John]. Profitable Advice for Rich and Poor … Containing a Description, or True Relation of south Carolina, an English Plantation. or Colour, in America (London: J. How. 1712). 13, 83–84Google Scholar; McCrady, Edward, The History of South Carolina under the Propietary Government, 1670–1719 (New York: Macmillan Co., 1897).Google Scholar
38 Bishko, . “Peninsular Background,” 494.Google Scholar Also see Trow-Smith, Robert, A History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1957), 213. 223. 229Google Scholar; Gill, Crispin. The West Country (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1962), 9–10.Google Scholar
39 Anderson, Jay A., “‘A Solid Sufficiency’: An Ethnography of Yeoman Foodways in Stuart England” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1971). 7, 10Google Scholar; Evans, E. Estyn. The Personality of Ireland: Habitat, Heritage, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), 38–39, 53, 60–61Google Scholar; Hoskins, W. G. and Stamp, L. D., The Common Lands of England and Wales (London: Collins, 1963), 108.Google Scholar
40 Hart, John F.. The British Moorlands: A Problem in Land Utilization, University of Georgia Monographs no. 2 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1955), 3–4, 9–10, 18–21Google Scholar; Kayll, A. J., “Moor Burning in Scotland,” Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference(Tallahassee:Tall Timbers Research Station, 1967), 32–35.Google Scholar
41 Campbell, Mildred, The English Yeoman under Elizabeth and the Earls Stuarts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942), 200–201Google Scholar; Spenser, Edmund, A View of the State of Ireland as It Was in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth (Dublin: Laurence Flin, 1763), 251–52Google Scholar; Carrier, Lyman. The Beginnings of Agriculture in America (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1923). 145.Google Scholar
42 Thirsk, Joan, ed., The Agrarian History of England and Wales: 1500–1640 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), 76Google Scholar; Tusser, Thomas, Five Hundred Pointes of Good Husbandrie, Payne, W. and Heritage, S. J., eds. (London: English Dialect Society, 1878), 141Google Scholar; Gosset, A. L. J., Shepherds of Britain: Scenes from Shepherd Life, Past and Present (London: Constable and Co.. 1911). 145Google Scholar; MacLysaght, Edward, Irish Life in the Seventeenth Century (Shannon: Irish University Press. 1969), 167–68.Google Scholar
Pen, or penn, was the generic British term for a stock enclosure. See Wright, Joseph, ed., The English Dialect Dictionary (London: Henry Frowde, 1898), IV, 464Google Scholar; Weekley, Ernest. An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English (London: John Murray, 1921), 1063.Google Scholar Such enclosures were also known as fftalds in Wales, folds in Scotland and Ireland, and bawns in Ireland. See Sylvester, Dorothy. The Rural Landscape of the Welsh Borderland (London: Macmillan. 1969), 508Google Scholar; Wright, , ed., English Dialect Dictionary, II. 439Google Scholar; Weekley, , Etymological Dictionary, 127.Google Scholar
43 Hart, . “British Moorlands,” 24, 26Google Scholar; Colyer, Richard J., The Welsh Cattle Drovers: Agriculture and the Welsh Cattle Trade before and during the Nineteenth Century (Cardiff: University of Wales Press. 1976), 7Google Scholar; Skeel, Caroline, The Cattle Trade between Wales and England from the Fifteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society no. 9 (London: Offices of the Society, 1926), 147, 155Google Scholar; Bonser, K. J.. The Drovers: Who They Were and How They Went (London: Macmillan, 1970), 23, 35, 45, 104, 106–8.Google Scholar
44 Catesby, Mark, The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahamas Islands (London: privately printed. 1743), II, iv.Google Scholar
45 During the summers, five acres of pine forest range produced enough grass to feed one cow. but during winters, fifteen acres provided barely enough to sustain that same cow. See Hilliard, Sam B., Hog Meat and Hoetake: Food Supply in the Old South, 1840–1860 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1972), 136.Google Scholar
46 [Wilson, ], An Account of the Province of Carolina, 13Google Scholar; [Norris, ]. Profitable Advice, 91.Google Scholar
47 [Norris, ]. Profitable Advice, 51Google Scholar; Cooper, Thomas. ed.. The Statutes at Large of South Carolina (Columbia: A. S. Johnston, 1837). II, 106–7. 261–62.Google Scholar
48 [Notis, ], Profitable Advice, 25Google Scholar; Lawson, John, The History of Carolina: Containing the Exact Description and Natural History of That Country (London: T. Warner. 1718). 80–81.Google Scholar
49 Jordan, , Trails to Texas, 31, 34, 41.Google Scholar The use of whips and dogs to herd cattle was apparently a British custom, for Australian cattle ranchers also relied on whips and dogs to manage their stock. See Greenway, John, “Australian Cattle Lingo,” American Speech, 33 (10 1958). 163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50 Steeg, Clarence L. Ver, Origins of a Southern Mosaic: Studies of Early Carolina and Georgia. Mercer University Lamar Memorial Lectures no. 17 (Athens: University of Georgia Press. 1975). 116.Google Scholar
51 [Cheves, Langdon. ed.], Collectio, is of the South Carolina Historical Society (Richmond: William Jones, 1897), V. 126.Google Scholar
52 [Hewatt, Alexander]. An Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia (London: Alexander Donaldson, 1779). I. 95.Google Scholar
53 Dunbar, Gary S., “Colonial Carolina Cowpens,” Agricultural History, 35 (07 1961), 126, 130.Google Scholar
54 McCrady, Edward, The History of South Carolina under the Royal Government. 1719–1776 (New York: Macmillan Co.. 1901), 396:Google ScholarWallace, David D., The History of South Carolina (New York: American Historical Society. 1934), I. 451.Google Scholar
55 Clark, Walter. ed., The State Records of North Carolina (Goldsboro: Nash Bros.. 1904), XXIII, 676.Google Scholar
56 John, H. “Cow Punching in Old Georgia.” Georgia Review. 3 (Fall 1949). 341:Google ScholarCoulter, E. Merton, ed., The Journal of William Stephens, 1743–1745 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1959), 97;Google ScholarGray, , History of Agriculture, I, 100, 148.Google Scholar
57 See Bartram, William, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida (Philadelphia: James and Johnson, 1791). 18–19, 309–11.Google Scholar
58 See Chalker, Fussell M., Pioneer Days along the Ocmidget, (Carroilton. Ga.: Thomasson Printing. 1970), 45;Google ScholarDavidson, Victor. History of Wilkinson County (Macon, Ga.. J. W. Burke Co.. 1978). 107;Google ScholarHuxford, Folks, The History of Brooks County, Georgia (Athens. Ga.. McGregor Co., 1949). 25:Google ScholarHilliard, . Hog Meat and Hoecake. 122.Google Scholar
59 Otto, John S.. “Florida's Cattle-Ranching Frontier: Manatee and Brevard Counties (1860).” Florida Historical Quarterly, 64 (07 1985). 59–61.Google Scholar
60 “List of Produce, &c. Shipped from the Port of Tampa. during the Past Season,” Florida Peninsular [Tampa], 3 12 1859;Google Scholar“A New Era in the History of Tampa,” Florida Peninsular [Tampa] 28 07 1860.Google Scholar