Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T05:10:40.027Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Growing more durable equine athletes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 July 2010

Randel Howard Raub
Randel Howard Raub*
Affiliation:
Purina, St Louis, MO, USA
*
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Discussions on growing more durable equine athletes often revolve around developmental orthopaedic disease (DOD). What degree of DOD, if any, is acceptable or inconsequential to long-term athletic performance remains a question. Much effort has been directed toward diminishing or eliminating the incidence and severity of DOD, but with limited success. We must continue to define what degree the management decisions affect the horse during different stages of its growth. It would seem logical that the most profound influence would occur during the most rapid periods of growth. Therefore, concerns have been directed toward the last third of gestation and the possible indirect effect that broodmare management has on foetal development. The early postnatal period is another period of rapid growth; thus, the effect of broodmare management on lactation may affect the growth of the foal. Management will also have a direct effect on growth and development from weaning through to maturity. Recent research in other species as well as in horse suggests that genetic predisposition is the primary determinant of DOD. Non-nutritional management also may have significant effects on articular and skeletal health and athletic durability. Much effort has been directed toward nutrition and potential impact on DOD, but with limited success. Except for overt deficiencies, or perhaps excessive imbalances, nutrition does not appear to be a primary determinant of DOD, particularly of focal lesions associated with osteochondrosis. However, nutrition may serve a secondary role in diminishing the severity and incidence of DOD in horses genetically predisposed to such conditions. Producing horses that will have long-term and productive athletic careers requires sound management that starts at conception and continues throughout the life of the horse.

Keywords

horsegrowthdevelopmental orthopaedic disease
Type
Review Article
Information
Comparative Exercise Physiology , Volume 7 , Issue 2 , May 2010 , pp. 49 - 56
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Barrie, HJ (1987). Osteochondritis dissecans. 1887–1987. A centennial look at Konig's memorable phrase. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 69B: 693–695.Google Scholar
2Pool, R (1993). Difficulties in definition of equine osteochondrosis; differentiation of developmental and acquired lesions. Equine Veterinary Journal S16: 5–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3McIlwraith, CW (2001). Developmental orthopedic disease (DOD) in horses – a multifactorial process. Proceedings of 17th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Society, Lexington, KY, pp. 2–23.Google Scholar
4Poulos, PW Jr, Reiland, S, Elwinger, K and Olsson, SE (1978). Skeletal lesions in the broiler with special reference to dyschondroplasia (osteonecrosis). Acta Radiologica Supplementum 358: 229–275.Google Scholar
5Ytrehus, B, Carlson, CS and Ekman, S (2007). Etiology and pathogenesis of osteochondrosis. Veterinary Pathology 44: 429–448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6Hurtig, MB and Pool, R (1996). Pathogenesis of equine osteochondrosis. In: McIlwraith, CW and Trotter, GW (eds) Joint Disease in the Horse. Churchill Livingstone, PA: WB Saunders, pp. 335–357.Google Scholar
7Neidel, J, Schulze, M and Sova, L (1994). Insulin-like growth factor 1 accelerates recovery of articular cartilage proteoglycan synthesis in culture after inhibition by interleukin 1. Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery 114: 43–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8Philipsson, J, Andreasson, E, Sandgren, B, Dalin, G and Carlsten, J (1992). Osteochondrosis in the tarsocrural joint and osteochondral fragments in the fetlock joints in Swedish Standardbred trotters-II. Heritability estimations. Proceedings of Equine Osteochondrosis in the 90’s, Cambridge University, pp. 17–18.Google Scholar
9Reiland, S, Ordell, N, Lundeheim, N and Olsson, SE (1978). Heredity of osteochondrosis, body constitution and leg weakness in pigs. Acta Radiologica Supplementum 358: 123–137.Google Scholar
10Reiland, S (1978). Morphology of osteochondrosis and sequelae in the pig. Acta Radiologica Supplementum 358: 45–90.Google ScholarPubMed
11Adams, OR (1974). Lameness in Horses. 3rd edn.Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.Google Scholar
12Rejno, S and Stromberg, B (1978). Osteochondrosis in the horse. II. Pathology. Acta Rodiologica Supplementum 358: 153–178.Google ScholarPubMed
13Carlson, CS, Meuten, DJ and Richardson, DC (1991). Ischemic necrosis of cartilage in spontaneous and experimental lesions of osteochondrosis. Journal of Orthopaedic Research 9: 317–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14Doube, M, Phil, B, Firth, EC and Boyde, A (2007). Variations in articular calcified cartilage by site and exercise in the 18 month old equine distal metacarpal condyle. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 15: 1283–1292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15Henson, FMD, Schofield, PN and Jeffcott, LB (1997). Expression of transforming growth factor-â1 in normal and dyschondroplastic articular growth cartilage of the young horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 29: 434–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
16Rooney, JR (1975). Osteochondrosis in the horse. Modern Veterinary Practice 41-43: 113–116.Google Scholar
17Bramlage, LR (1987). Clinical manifestations of disturbed bone formation in the horse. Proceedings of 33rd Annual Convention of American Association for Equine Practitioners, Lexington, KY, pp. 135–138.Google Scholar
18Ytrehus, B, Ekman, S, Carlson, CS, Teige, J and Reinholt, FP (2004). Focal changes in blood supply during normal epiphyseal growth are central in the pathogenesis of osteochondrosis in pigs. Bone 35: 1294–1306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19Olstad, K, Ytrehus, B, Ekman, S, Carlson, CS and Dovik, NI (2008). Epiphyseal cartilage canal blood supply to the tarsus of foals and relationship to osteochondrosis. Equine Veterinary Journal 40(1): 30–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20Grondahl, AM and Dolvik, NI (1993). Heritability estimations of osteochondrosis in the tibiotarsal joint and of bony fragments in the palmar/plantar portion of the metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal joints of horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 203: 101–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21Grondahl, AM and Dolvik, NI (1992). Heritability of osteochondrosis in the tibiotarsal joint and of bony fragments in the fetlocks of Standardbred trotters. Proceedings of Equine Osteochondrosis in the 90's, Cambridge, pp. 14–15.Google Scholar
22Valentino, LW, Lillich, JD, Gaughan, EM, Biller, DR and Raub, RH (1999). Clinical report – radiographic prevalence of osteochondrosis in yearling feral horses. Veterinary and Comparative Orthopaedics and Traumatology 12: 151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23Lampe, V, Dierks, K, Komm, K and Distl, O (2009). Identification of a new quantitative locus on equine chromosome 18 responsible for osteochondrosis in Hanoverian Warmblood horses. Journal of Animal Science 87: 3477–3481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24Wittwer, C, Dierks, C, Hamann, H and Distl, O (2008). Association between candidate gene markers at a quantitative trait locus on equine chromosome 4 responsible for osteochondrosis dissecans in fetlock joints of South German Coldblood horses. Journal of Heredity 99(2): 125–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
25Pieramati, C, Pepe, M, Silverstrelli, MS and Bolla, M (2003). Heritability estimates of osteochondrosis dissecans in Maremmano horses. Livestock Production Science 79: 249–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26Platt, H (1984). Growth of the equine fetus. Equine Veterinary Journal 16: 247–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27Sisson, S and Grossman, JD (1975). The Anatomy of Domestic Animals. 5th edn. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders.Google Scholar
28Stewart, F, Goode, JA and Allen, WR (1993). Growth hormone secretion in the horse: unusual pattern at birth and pulsatile secretion through to maturity. Journal of Endocrinology 138: 81–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29Pearce, SG, Firth, EC, Grace, ND and Fennessy, PF (1998 a). Effect of copper supplementation on the evidence of developmental orthopedic disease in pasture-fed New Zealand Thoroughbreds. Equine Veterinary Journal 30: 211–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30Pearce, SG, Grace, ND and Firth, EC (1998 b). Effect of copper supplementation on the copper status of pasture-fed young Thoroughbreds. Equine Veterinary Journal 30: 204–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31Pearce, SG, Grace, ND, Wichtel, JJ, Firth, EC and Fennessy, PF (1998 c). Effect of copper supplementation on copper status of pregnant mares and foals. Equine Veterinary Journal 30: 200–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32Gee, E, Firth, EC, Morel, PCH, Fennessy, PF, Grace, N and Moog, TD (2005). Articular/epiphyseal osteochondrosis in Thoroughbred foals at 5 months of age: influences of growth of the foal and prenatal copper supplementation of the dam, New Zealand. Veterinary Journal 53(6): 449–457.Google Scholar
33Kubiak, JR, Crawford, BH, Squires, EL, Wrigley, RH and Ward, GM (1987). The influence of energy intake and percentage of body fat on the reproductive performance of non-pregnant mares. Theriogenology 28: 587–598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
34Henneke, DG, Potter, GD and Kreider, JL (1984). Body condition during pregnancy and lactation and reproductive efficiency in mares. Theriogenology 21: 897–909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35Thompson, KN, Jackson, SG and Baker, JP (1988). The influence of high planes of nutrition on skeletal growth and development of weanling horses. Journal of Animal Science 88(66): 2459–2467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36Campbell, JR and Lee, R (1981). Radiological estimation of differential growth rates of the long bones of foals. Equine Veterinary Journal 13: 244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37Fretz, PB, Cymbaluk, NF and Pharr, JW (1984). Quantitative analysis of long-bone growth in the horse. American Journal of Veterinary Research. 45: 1602–1609.Google ScholarPubMed
38Thompson, KN and Smith, BP (1994). Skeletal growth patterns of Thoroughbred horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 14: 148–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
39Hintz, HF, Hintz, RL and Van Vleck, LD (1979). Growth rate of Thoroughbreds. Effect of age of dam, year and month of birth and sex of foal. Journal of Animal Science 48: 480–487.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40Green, DA (1969). A study of growth rate in Thoroughbred foals. The British Veterinary Journal 125: 539–546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41Lepeule, J, Bareille, N, Robert, C, Ezanno, P, Valette, JP, Jacquet, S et al. . (2009). Association of growth, feeding practices and exercise conditions with the prevalence of developmental orthopedic disease in limbs of French foals at weaning. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 89: 167–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42Pagan, JD and Jackson, SG (1996). The incidence of developmental orthopedic disease on a Kentucky Thoroughbred farm. World Equine Veterinary Review 1: 20–26.Google Scholar
43Sandgren, B, Dalin, G and Carlsten, J (1993). Osteochondrosis in the tarsocrural joint and osteochondral fragments in the fetlock joints of Standardbred trotters. II. Body measurements and clinical findings. Equine Veterinary Journal S16: 48–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44Jeffcott, LB (1991). Osteochondrosis in the horse – searching for the key to pathogenesis. Equine Veterinary Journal 23: 331–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45Goyal, HO, MacCallum, FJ, Brown, MP and Delack, JB (1981). Growth rates of the extremities of limb bones in young horses. The Canadian Veterinary Journal 22: 31–33.Google ScholarPubMed
46Coleman, RJ, Mathison, GW and Burwash, L (1999). Growth and conditioning at weaning of extensively managed creep-fed foals. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 19: 45–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
47Daughday, WH (1981). Endocrine Control of Growth. New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
48Ott, EA and Kivipelto, J (2002). Growth and development of yearling horses fed alfalfa or coastal bermudagrass hay and a concentrate formulated for bermudagrass hay. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 22: 311–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49Savage, CJ, McCarthy, RN and Jeffcott, LB (1993). Effects of dietary energy and protein on induction of dyschondroplasia in foals. Equine Veterinary Journal S16: 74–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
50Schryver, HF, Meakin, DW, Lowe, JE, Williams, LV, Soderholm, LV and Hintz, HF (1987). Growth and calcium metabolism in horses fed various levels of protein. Equine Veterinary Journal 19: 280–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51Darling, AL, Millard, DJ, Torgerson, DJ, Hewitt, CE and Lanham, SA (2009). Dietary protein and bone health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90: 1674–1692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52Grace, ND, Rogers, CW, Firth, EC, Faram, TL and Shaw, HL (2003). Digestible energy intake, dry matter digestibility and effect of increased calcium intake on bone parameters of grazing Thoroughbred weanlings in New Zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 51(4): 165–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53Barnveld, A and van Weerenr, PR (1999). Conclusions regarding the influence of exercise on the development of the equine musculo skeletal system with special reference to osteochondrosis. Equine Veterinary Journal Supplement 31: 112–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
54Brama, PAJ, Firth, EC, van Weeren, PR, Tuukkanen, J, Holopainen, J, Helminen, HJ et al. . (2009). Influence of intensity and changes of physical activity on bone mineral density of immature equine subchondral bone. Equine Veterinary Journal 41(6): 564–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
55Raub, RH, Jackson, SG and Baker, JP (1989). The effect of exercise on bone growth and development in weanling horses. Journal of Animal Science 67(10): 2508–2514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56Stromberg, J (1979). A review of the salient features of osteochondrosis in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 11: 211–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57Anderson, K (1991). Influence of exercise on developmental orthopedic disease and the properties of bone in weanling horses fed an imbalanced diet. PhD Dissertation, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.Google Scholar
58Van Weeren, PR and Barneveld, A (1999). The effect of exercise on the distribution and manifestation of osteochondritic lesions in the Warmblood foal. Equine Veterinary Journal S31: 16–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
59Rogers, CW, Firth, EC, McIlwraith, CW, Barneveld, A, Goodship, AE, Kawcak, CE et al. . (2008 a). Evaluation of a new strategy to modulate skeletal development in Thoroughbred performance horses by imposing track-based exercise during growth. Equine Veterinary Journal 40(2): 111–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60Rogers, CW, Firth, EC, McIlwraith, CW, Barneveld, A, Goodship, AE, Kawcak, CE et al. . (2008 b). Evaluation of a new strategy to modulate skeletal development in racehorses by imposing track-based exercise: the effects on 2 and 3 year old racing careers. Equine Veterinary Journal 40(2): 119–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61Van Weeren, PR, Firth, EC, Brommer, H, Hyttinen, MM, Helminent, HJ, Rogers, CW et al. . (2008). Early exercise advances the maturation of glycosaminoglycans and collagen in the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 40(2): 128–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62Brama, PAJ, Holopainen, J, van Weeren, PR, Firth, EC, Helminen, HJ and Hyttinen, HH (2009). Early exercise advances the maturation of glycosaminoglycans and collagen in the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 41(6): 557–563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
63Moffat, PA, Firth, EC, Rogers, CW, Smith, RKW, Barneveld, A, Goodship, AE et al. . (2008). The influence of exercise during growth on ultrasonographic parameters of the superficial digital flexor tendon of young Thoroughbred horses. Equine Veterinary Journal 40(2): 136–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64Stanley, RL, Edwards, LJ, Goodship, AE, Firth, EC and Patterson-Kane, JC (2008). Effects of exercise on tenocyte cellularity and tenocyte nuclear morphology in immature equine digital tendons. Equine Veterinary Journal 40(2): 141–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65Hampson, BA, Morton, JM, Mills, PC, Trotter, MG, Lamb, DW and Pollitt, CC (2010). Monitoring distances travelled by horses using GPS tracking collars. Australian Veterinary Journal 88(5): 176–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66Williamson, K, Jerina, M, Rietzel, L and Gordon, M (2010). Use of global positioning satellite (GPS) devices to determine factors affecting spontaneous exercise activity in young horses. LongView Animal Nutrition Center, Land O Lakes – Purina, St. Louis, MO (unpublished data).Google Scholar
67Goldring, MB, Tsuchimochi, K and Ijiri, K (2006). The control of chondrogenesis. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 97: 33–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68Kronenberg, HM (2003). Developmental regulation of the growth plate. Nature 423: 332–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69Provot, S and Schipani, E (2005). Molecular mechanisms of endochondral bone development. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 38: 658–665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
70Semevolos, AS, Nixon, AJ and Brower-Toland, BD (1999). Changes in molecular expression of articular cartilage aggrecan and collagen types I, II and X secondary to alterations of TGF-beta, IGF-1 and PTH-rP in osteochondrosis. Proceedings of Orthopaedic Research Society, Rosemont, IL, pp. 688.Google Scholar
71Glade, MJ and Belling, TH (1986). A dietary etiology for osteochondritic cartilage. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 6: 151–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72Ralston, S, Hrabinski, D and Brady, S (2001). Glucose tolerance testing in foals. Proceedings of 17th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Society, Lexington, KY, pp. 182.Google Scholar
73Slough, T (2001). The effect of dietary energy source on local and systemic serum concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-1 and growth hormone in yearling horses. Thesis (MS), Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.Google Scholar
74Staniar, WB, Akers, RM, Williams, CA, Kronfeld, DS and Harris, PA (2001). Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-1) in growing Thoroughbred foals fed a fat and fiber versus a sugar and starch supplement. Proceedings of 17th Equine Nutrition and Physiology Society, Lexington, KY, pp. 176.Google Scholar
75Baldock, J, Raub, RH and Minton, JE (2003). The effect of dietary energy source on serum concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-I, insulin, glucose, and fat metabolites in weanling horses. Journal of Animal Science 81: 1–9.Google Scholar
76Noweisky, EA, Morrissey, JR, Jedrzejewski, EA, Harris, PA and Staniar, BW (2009). Biomarkers of cartilage metabolism and IGF-1 as influenced by dietary starch. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 29(5): 397–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77Weber, JD (1991). The effect of dietary energy source on serum and synovial fluid concentrations of transforming growth factor beta one in weanling horses. Thesis (MS), Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.Google Scholar
78Cymbaluk, NF and Smart, ME (1993). A review of possible metabolic relationships of copper to equine bone disease. Equine Veterinary Journal S16: 1923–1926.Google Scholar
79Knight, DA, Gabel, AA, Reed, SM, Embertson, RM, Bramlage, RL and Tyznik, WJ (1985). Correlation of dietary minerals to incidence and severity of metabolic bone disease in Ohio and Kentucky. Proceedings of 31st Annual Meeting of American Association of Equine Practitioners, pp. 445–561.Google Scholar