Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T09:21:08.012Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Preparation and Properties of Reduced-Charge Smectites — A Review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

Peter Komadel ,
Jana Madejová  and
Juraj Bujdák
Peter Komadel*
Affiliation:
Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-845 36 Bratislava, Slovakia
Jana Madejová
Affiliation:
Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-845 36 Bratislava, Slovakia
Juraj Bujdák
Affiliation:
Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-845 36 Bratislava, Slovakia
*
*E-mail address of corresponding author: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Layer charge reduction of selected homoionic swelling clay minerals upon heating is reviewed. This phenomenon is known for Li+-montmorillonites as the Hofmann-Klemen effect. Aspects covered in the review include: mechanism of the charge reduction caused by the irreversible migration of small cations into the mineral layers; final sites of the fixed cations in the octahedral and/or tetrahedral sheets, as deduced on the basis of structural and spectroscopic data obtained in several studies; effects of octahedral and tetrahedral components of the layer charge; properties of the exchangeable cations; and the chemistry and structure of the mineral on charge reduction. Current knowledge has been summarized on the changes of various mineral properties connected with charge reduction, including the loss of swelling and the decrease in the cation exchange capacity, the most important change upon cation fixation. Also discussed are the preparation, properties, and advantages of uses of series of reduced-charge montmorillonites (RCMs) in research; interactions of RCMs with alkylammonium cations and organic cationic dyes, with some examples on the interactions with organic polymers and other organic compounds. Properties of organo-complexes and composite materials prepared from RCMs are also included in this review.

Keywords

Hoffman-Klemen effectReduced-charge SmectitesSwelling Clays
Type
Review Article
Information
Clays and Clay Minerals , Volume 53 , Issue 4 , August 2005 , pp. 313 - 334
Copyright
Copyright © The Clay Minerals Society 2005

References

Alba, M.D. Alvero, R. Becerro, A.I. Castro, M.A. and Trillo, J.M., (1998) Chemical behavior of lithium ions in reexpanded Li-montmorillonites Journal of Physical Chemistry B 102 2207–2213 10.1021/jp9715641.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alvero, R. Alba, M.D. Castro, M.A. and Trillo, J.M., (1994) Reversible migration of lithium in montmorillonite Journal of Physical Chemistry 98 7848–7853.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Annabi-Bergaya, F. Cruz, M.I. Gatineau, L. and Fripiat, J.J., (1979) Adsorption of alcohols by smectites. I. Distinction between internal and external surfaces Clay Minerals 14 249–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bahranowski, K. Gawel, A. Kielski, A. Michalik, A. Serwicka, E.M. Wisla-Walsh, E. Wodnicka, K. and Zwicky, C., (2002) Reduced charge Al-pillared montmorillonites: On the possibility of controlling the pillar density Geologica Carpathica 53 99–102.Google Scholar
Beaufort, D. Berger, G. Lacharpagne, J.C. and Meunier, A., (2001) An experimental alteration of montmorillonite to a di + trioctahedral smectite assemblage at 100 and 200°C Clay Minerals 36 211–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bidadi, H. Schroeder, P.A. and Pinnavaia, T.J., (1988) Dielectric properties of montmorillonite clay films: Effects of water and layer charge reduction Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 49 1435–1440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brindley, G.W. and Ertem, G., (1971) Preparation and solvation properties of some variable charge montmorillonites Clays and Clay Minerals 19 399–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bujdák, J. and Iyi, N., (2002) Visible spectroscopy of cationic dyes in dispersions with reduced-charge montmorillonites Clays and Clay Minerals 50 446–454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bujdák, J. and Komadel, P., (1997) Interaction of methylene blue with reduced charge montmorillonite Journal of Physical Chemistry B 101 9065–9068.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bujdák, J. Slosiariková, H. Nováková, L. and Číčel, B., (1991) Fixation of lithium cations in montmorillonite Chemical Papers 45 499–507.Google Scholar
Bujdák, J. Petrovičová, I. and Slosiariková, H., (1992) Study of water—reduced charge montmorillonite system Geologica Carpathica, Series Clays 43 109–111.Google Scholar
Bujdák, J. Slosiariková, H. and Číčel, B., (1992) Interaction of long chain alkylammonium cations with reduced charge montmorillonite Journal of Inclusion Phenomena and Molecular Recognition 13 321–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bujdák, J. Slosiariková, H. and Číčel, B., (1993) Sorption of hexadecylammonium ions on reduced charge montmorillonites Chemical Papers 47 85–87.Google Scholar
Bujdák, J. Hackett, E. and Giannelis, E.P., (2000) Effect of layer charge on the intercalation of poly(ethylene oxide) in layered silicates: Implication on nanocomposite polymer electrolytes Chemistry of Materials 12 2168–2174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bujdák, J. Janek, M. Madejová, J. and Komadel, P., (2001) Methylene blue interactions with reduced charge smectites Clays and Clay Minerals 49 244–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bujdák, J. Iyi, N. and Fujita, T., (2002) The aggregation of methylene blue in montmorillonite dispersions Clay Minerals 37 121–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bujdák, J. Iyi, N. Hrobáriková, J. and Fujita, T., (2002) Aggregation and decomposition of a pseudoisocyanine dye in dispersions of layered silicates Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 247 494–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bujdák, J. Iyi, N. and Fujita, T., (2002) Aggregation and stability of 1,1’-diethyl-4,4’-cyanine dye on the surface of layered silicates with different charge densities Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 207 207–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bujdák, J. Iyi, N. and Fujita, T., (2003) Control of optical properties of adsorbed cyanine dyes via negative charge distribution on layered silicates Solid State Phenomena 90 463–468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bujdák, J. Iyi, N. Kaneko, Y. Czímerová, A. and Sasai, R., (2003) Molecular arrangement of rhodamine 6G cations in the films of layered silicates: The effect of the layer charge Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 5 4680–4685.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calvet, R. and Prost, R., (1971) Cation migration into empty octahedral sites and surface properties of clays Clays and Clay Minerals 19 175–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chorom, M. and Rengasamy, P., (1996) Effect of heating on swelling and dispersion of different cationic forms of a smectite Clays and Clay Minerals 44 783–790.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Číčel, B. Komadel, P., Amonette, J.E. and Zelazny, L.W., (1994) Structural formulae of layer silicates Quantitative Methods in Soil Mineralogy Madison, Wisconsin Soil Science Society of America 114–136.Google Scholar
Clementz, D.M. and Mortland, M.M., (1974) Properties of reduced charge montmorillonite: Tetra-alkylammonium ion exchange forms Clays and Clay Minerals 22 223–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clementz, D.M. Mortland, M.M. and Pinnavaia, T.J., (1974) Properties of reduced charge montmorillonites: Hydrated Cu (II) ions as a spectroscopic prohe Clays and Clay Minerals 22 49–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, N.T. and Craig, D., (1961) The spontaneous alteration of hydrogen clay Soil Science 91 14–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuadros, J., (2002) Structural insights from the study of Cs-exchanged smectites submitted to wetting-and-drying cycles Clay Minerals 37 473–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Czímerová, A. Bujdák, J. and Gáplovský, A., (2003) Reduction of the negative charge of layered silicates prohed hy cationic azine dyes Solid State Phenomena 90 469–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delozier, D.M. Orwoll, R.A. Cahoon, J.F. Ladislaw, J.S. Smith, J.G. and Connell, J.W., (2003) Polyimide nanocomposites prepared from high-temperature, reduced charge organoclays Polymer 44 2231–2241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dutta, N.C. Iwasaki, T. Ehina, T. and Hayashi, H., (1999) A combined X-ray photoelectron and Auger electron spectroscopic study of cesium in variable-charge montmorillonites Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 216 161–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmerich, K. Madsen, F.T. and Kahr, G., (1999) Dehydroxylation behavior of heat-treated and steam-treated homoionic cis-vacant octahedra Clays and Clay Minerals 47 591–604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emmerich, K. Plötze, M. and Kahr, G., (2001) Reversible collapse and Mg2+ release of de- and rehydroxylated homoionic cis-vacant montmorillonites Applied Clay Science 19 143–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, V.C. and Russell, J.D., (1967) Infrared absorption spectrometry in clay studies Clays and Clay Minerals 15 121–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feng, Q. Honhu, C. Yanagisawa, K. Yamasaki, N. and Komameni, S., (2000) Synthesis of LiAl2(OH)6+ intercalated montmorillonite hy a hydrothermal soft chemical reaction Journal of Materials Chemistry 10 483–488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gates, W.P. Komadel, P. Madejová, J. Bujdák, J. Stucki, J.W. and Kirkpatrick, R.J., (2000) Electronic and structural properties of reduced-charge montmorillonites Applied Clay Science 16 257–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greathouse, J. and Sposito, G., (1998) Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics studies of interlayer structure in Li(H2O)(3)-smectites Journal of Physical Chemistry B 102 2406–2414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene-Kelly, R., (1953) The identification of montmorillonoids in clays Journal of Soil Science 4 233–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene-Kelly, R., (1955) Dehydration of montmorillonite minerals Mineralogical Magazine 30 604–615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hahner, G. Marti, A. Spencer, N.D. and Caseri, W.R., (1996) Orientation and electronic structure of methylene blue on mica: A near edge X-ray absorption structure spectroscopic study Journal of Chemical Physics 104 7749–7757.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
He, H.P. Guo, J.G. Xie, X.D. and Peng, J.L., (2001) Location and migration of cations in Cu2+-adsorbed montmorillonite Environment International 26 347–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heller-Kallai, L., (2001) Protonation-deprotonation of dioctahedral smectites Applied Clay Science 20 27–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heller-Kallai, L. and Mosser, C., (1995) Migration of Cu ions in Cu montmorillonite heated with and without alkali halides Clays and Clay Minerals 43 738–743.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hofmann, U. and Klemen, R., (1950) Verlust der Austauschfähigkeit von Lithiumionen an Bentonit durch Erhitzung Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie 262 95–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hrobáriková, J. and Komadel, P., (2002) Sorption properties of reduced charge montmorillonite Geologica Carpathica 53 93–98.Google Scholar
Hrobáriková, J. Madejová, J. and Komadel, P., (2001) Effect of heating temperature on Li fixation, layer charge and properties of fine fractions of bentonites Journal of Materials Chemistry 11 1452–1457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iwasaki, T. Onodera, Y., Churchman, G.J. Fitzpatrick, J.W. and Eggleton, R.A., (1995) Sorption behaviour of caesium ions in smectites Clays: Controlling the Environment 67–73.Google Scholar
Janek, M. and Komadel, P., (1993) Autotransformation of H- smectites in aqueous solutions. Effect of octahedral iron content Geologica Carpathica, Series Clays 44 59–64.Google Scholar
Janek, M. and Komadel, P., (1999) Acidity of proton saturated and autotransformed smectites characterised with proton affinity distribution Geologica Carpathica 50 373–378.Google Scholar
Janek, M. Komadel, P. and Lagaly, G., (1997) Effect of autotransformation on the layer charge of smectites determined hy the alkylammonium method Clay Minerals 32 623–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaynes, W.F. and Bigham, J.M., (1987) Charge reduction, octahedral charge, and lithium retention in heated, Li-saturated smectites Clays and Clay Minerals 35 440–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaynes, W.F. Traina, S.J. Bigham, J.M. and Johnston, C.T., (1992) Preparation and characterization of reduced-charge hectorites Clays and Clay Minerals 40 397–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaneko, Y. Iyi, N. Bujdák, J. Sasai, R. and Fujita, T., (2003) Molecular orientation of methylene blue intercalated in layer-charge-controlled montmorillonites Journal of Materials Research 18 2639–2643.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaneko, Y. Iyi, N. Bujdák, J. Sasai, R. and Fujita, T., (2004) Effect of layer charge density on orientation and aggregation of a cationic laser dye incorporated in the interlayer space of montmorillonites Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 269 22–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karakassides, M.A. Gournis, D. and Petridis, D., (1997) Infrared reflectance study of thermally treated Li- and Cs-montmorillonites Clays and Clay Minerals 45 649–658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karakassides, M.A. Gournis, D. and Petridis, D., (1999) An infrared reflectance study of Si-0 vibrations in thermally treated alkali-saturated montmorillonites Clay Minerals 34 429–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karakassides, M.A. Madejová, J. Arvaiová, B. Bourlinos, A. Petridis, D. and Komadel, P., (1999) Location of Li(I), Cu(II), and Cd(II) in heated montmorillonite: Evidence from specular reflectance infrared and electron spin resonance spectroscopies Journal of Materials Chemistry 9 1553–1558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitajima, K. Taruta, S. and Takusagawa, N., (1991) Effect of layer charge on the IR spectra of synthetic fluorine micas Clay Minerals 26 435–440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohayashi, T., (1996) J-aggregates Singapore World Scientific Pub Co..CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Komadel, P., (2003) Chemically modified smectites Clay Minerals 38 127–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Komadel, P. Bujdák, J. Madejová, J. Šucha, V. and Elsass, F., (1996) Effect of non-swelling layers on the dissolution of reduced-charge montmorillonite in hydrochloric acid Clay Minerals 31 333–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Komadel, P. Madejová, J. and Stucki, J.W., (1999) Partial stabilization of Fe(II) in reduced ferruginous smectite hy Li fixation Clays and Clay Minerals 47 458–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Komadel, P. Hrobáriková, J. Smrčok, L. and Koppelhuber-Bitschnau, B., (2002) Hydration of reduced-charge montmorillonite Clay Minerals 37 543–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Komadel, P. Madejová, J. Hrobáriková, J. Janek, M. and Bujdák, J., (2003) Fixation of Li+ cations in montmorillonite upon heating Solid State Phenomena 90 497–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Köster, H.M. Ehrlicher, U. Gilg, H.A. Jordan, R. Murad, E. and Onnich, K., (1999) Mineralogical and chemical characteristics of five nontronites and Fe-rich smectites Clay Minerals 34 579–599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lagaly, G. and Mermut, A.R., (1994) Layer charge determination by alkylammonium ions Layer Charge Characteristics of 2:1 Silicate Clay Minerals Boulder, Colorado The Clay Minerals Society 2–46.Google Scholar
Laird, D.A., (1999) Layer charge influences on the hydration of expandable 2:1 phyllosilicates Clays and Clay Minerals 47 630–636.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laird, D.A. Scott, A.D. and Fenton, T.E., (1989) Evaluation of the alkylammonium method of determining layer charge Clays and Clay Minerals 37 41–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lim, C.F.L. and Jackson, M.L., (1986) Expandable phyllosilicate reactions with lithium on heating Clays and Clay Minerals 34 346–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luca, V. and Cardile, C.M., (1988) Thermally induced cation migration in Na and Li montmorillonite Physics and Chemistry of Minerals 16 98–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luca, V. Cardile, C.M. and Meinhold, R.H., (1989) Highresolution multinuclear NMR study of cation migration in montmorillonite Clay Minerals 24 115–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madejová, J. Bujdák, J. Gates, W.P. and Komadel, P., (1996) Preparation and infrared spectroscopic characterization of reduced-charge montmorillonite with various Li contents Clay Minerals 31 233–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madejová, J. Arvaiová, B. and Komadel, P., (1999) FTIR spectroscopic characterisation of thermally treated Cu2+, Cd2+, and Li+ montmorillonites Spectrochimica Acta A 55 2467–2476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madejová, J. Bujdák, J. Petit, S. and Komadel, P., (2000) Effects of chemical composition and temperature of heating on the infrared spectra of Li-saturated dioctahedral smectites. (I) Mid-infrared region Clay Minerals 35 739–751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madejová, J. Bujdák, J. Petit, S. and Komadel, P., (2000) Effects of chemical composition and temperature of heating on the infrared spectra of Li-saturated dioctahedral smectites. (II) Near-infrared region Clay Minerals 35 753–761.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manceau, A. Drits, V.A. Lanson, B. Chateigner, D. Wu, J. Huo, D. Gates, W.P. and Stucki, J.W., (2000) Oxidationreduction mechanism of iron in dioctahedral smectites: 2. Crystal chemistry of reduced Garfield nontronite American Mineralogist 85 153–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maes, A. Stul, M.S. and Cremers, A., (1979) Layer chargecation exchange capacity relationships in montmorillonite Clays and Clay Minerals 27 387–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malla, P.B. and Douglas, L.A., (1987) Problems in identification of montmorillonite with variable Li contents Clays and Clay Minerals 35 232–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McBride, M.B. and Mortland, M.M., (1974) Copper (II) interactions with montmorillonite: Evidence from physical methods Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 38 408–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meier, L.P. and Nuesch, R., (1999) The lower cation exchange capacity limit of montmorillonite Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 217 77–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mermut, A.R., (1994) Layer Charge Characteristics of 2:1 Silicate Clay Minerals Boulder, Colorado The Clay Minerals Society.Google Scholar
Mermut, A.R. and Mermut, A.R., (1994) Problems associated with layer charge characterization of 2:1 phyllosilicates Layer Charge Characteristics of 2:1 Silicate Clay Minerals Boulder, Colorado, USA The Clay Minerals Society 106–122.Google Scholar
Miklos, D. and Číčel, B., (1993) Development of interstratification in K- and NH4-smectite from Jelsovy Potok (Slovakia) treated by wetting and drying Clay Minerals 28 435–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosser, C. Michot, L.J. Villieras, F. and Romeo, M., (1997) Migration of cations in copper(II)-exchanged montmorillonite and laponite upon heating Clays and Clay Minerals 45 789–802.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norrish, K., (1954) The swelling of montmorillonites Discussions of the Faraday Society 18 120–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olis, A.C. Malla, P.B. and Douglas, L.A., (1990) The rapid estimation of the layer charges of 2–1 expanding clays from a single alkylammonium ion expansion Clay Minerals 25 39–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ormerod, E.C. and Newman, A.C.D., (1983) Water sorption on Ca-saturated clays: II. Internal and external surfaces of montmorillonite Clay Minerals 18 289–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pálková, H. Madejová, J. and Righi, D., (2003) Acid dissolution of reduced-charge Li- and Ni-montmorillonites Clays and Clay Minerals 51 133–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, S.H. and Sposito, G., (2000) Monte Carlo simulation of total radial distribution functions for interlayer water in Li-, Na-, and K-montmorillonite hydrates Journal of Physical Chemistry B 104 4642–4648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pennell, K.D. Rhue, R.D. and Harris, W.G., (1991) The effect of heat treatments on the total charge and exchangeable cations of Ca-, Na-, and Li-saturated kaolinite Clays and Clay Minerals 39 306–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petit, S. Righi, D. Madejová, J. and Decarreau, A., (1998) Layer charge estimation of smectites using infrared spectroscopy Clay Minerals 33 579–591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petit, S. Caillaud, J. Righi, D. Madejová, J. Elsass, F. and Köster, H.M., (2002) Characterization and crystal chemistry of an Fe-rich montmorillonite Clay Minerals 37 283–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Purnell, J.H. and Lu, Y., (1993) Ionic migration and charge reduction in Ni2+, Co2+ and Zn2+-exchanged Texas montmorillonite Catalysis Letters 18 235–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Purnell, J.H. Williams, J. and Lu, Y., (1991) Charge reduction and regeneration in K+, Na+, Mg2+, Ni2+ and Co2+-exchanged Wyoming bentonite Catalysis Letters 10 63–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, J.D. and Farmer, V.C., (1964) Infrared spectroscopic study of the dehydration of montmorillonite and saponite Clay Minerals Bulletin 5 443–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, J.D. and Fraser, A.R., (1971) IR spectroscopic evidence for interaction between hydronium ions and lattice OH groups in montmorillonite Clays and Clay Minerals 19 55–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanchez-Soto, P. Sohrados, I. Sanz, J. and Perez-Rodriguez, J.L., (1993) 29-Si and 27-Al MAS NMR study of the thermal transformations of pyrophyllite Journal of the American Ceramic Society 76 3024–3028.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sato, T. Watanahe, T. and Otsuka, R., (1992) Effects of layer charge, charge location, and energy change on expansion properties of dioctahedral smectites Clays and Clay Minerals 40 103–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, L.G., (1969) Lithium and potassium absorption, dehydroxylation temperature and structural water content in aluminous smectites Clays and Clay Minerals 17 115–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheng, G.Y. Johnston, C.T. Teppen, B.J. and Boyd, S.A., (2002) Adsorption of dinitrophenol herbicides from water by montmorillonites Clays and Clay Minerals 50 25–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slade, P.G. and Gates, W.P., (2004) The swelling of HDTMA smectites as influenced by their preparation and layer charges Applied Clay Science 25 93–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sposito, G. Prost, R. and Gaultier, J.P., (1983) Infrared spectroscopic study of adsorbed water on reduced-charge montmorillonites Clays and Clay Minerals 31 9–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Srasra, E. Bergaya, F. and Fripiat, J.J., (1994) Infrared spectroscopy study of tetrahedral and octahedral substitutions in an interstratified illite-smectite clay Clays and Clay Minerals 42 237–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stackhouse, S. and Coveney, P.V., (2002) Study of thermally treated lithium montmorillonite by Ab Initio methods Journal of Physical Chemistry B 106 12470–12477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, J.J. and Anderson, S.J., (1996) Orientation of trimethylphenylammonium (TMPA) on Wyoming montmorillonite: Implications for sorption of aromatic compounds Clays and Clay Minerals 44 132–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, J.J. and Anderson, S.J., (1996) An FTIR study of water sorption on TMA- and TMPA-montmorillonites Clays and Clay Minerals 44 142–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, J.J. Anderson, S.J. and Boyd, S.A., (1996) FTIR study of competitive water-arene sorption on tetramethylammonium- and trimethylphenylammonium montmorillonites Clays and Clay Minerals 44 88–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stucki, J.W. Lee, K. Zhang, L. and Larson, R.A., (2002) Effects of iron oxidation state on the surface and structural properties of smectites Pure and Applied Chemistry 74 2145–2158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Šucha, V. and Širáňnová, V., (1991) Ammonium and potassium fixation in smectites by wetting and drying Clays and Clay Minerals 39 556–559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tamura, K. Yamada, H. and Nakazawa, H., (2000) Stepwise hydration of high-quality synthetic smectites with various cations Clays and Clay Minerals 48 400–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tettenhorst, R., (1962) Cation migration in montmorillonites American Mineralogist 47 769–773.Google Scholar
Theng, B.K.G. Hayashi, S. Soma, M. and Seyama, H., (1997) Nuclear magnetic resonance and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic investigation of lithium migration in montmorillonite Clays and Clay Minerals 45 718–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, F. Michot, L.J. Vantelon, D. Montargès, E. Prélot, B. Cruchaudet, M. and Delon, J.F., (1999) Layer charge and electrophoretic mobility of smectites Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 159 351–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Varadachari, C. Mondal, A.H. and Ghosh, K., (1991) Some aspects of clay-humus complexation — effect of exchangeable cations and lattice charge Soil Science 151 220–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villemure, G. and Bard, A.J., (1990) Clay modified electrodes: Part 9. Electrochemical studies of the electroactive fraction of adsorbed species in reduced-charge and preadsorbed clay films Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 282 107–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, J. Purnell, J.H. and Ballantine, J.A., (1991) The mechanism of layer charge reduction and regeneration in Li+-exchanged montmorillonite Catalysis Letters 9 115–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yariv, S. and Heller-Kallai, L., (1973) I.R. evidence for migration of protons in H- and organo-montmorillonites Clays and Clay Minerals 21 199–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar