Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T22:30:54.444Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Comparison of Structural Models of Mixed-Layer Illite/Smectite and Reaction Mechanisms of Smectite Illitization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2024

Stephen P. Altaner  and
Robert F. Ylagan
Stephen P. Altaner
Affiliation:
Department of Geology, University of Illinois, 1301 W. Green St., Urbana, Illinois 61801
Robert F. Ylagan
Affiliation:
Department of Geology, University of Illinois, 1301 W. Green St., Urbana, Illinois 61801
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

This paper compares mechanisms of the reaction of smectite to illite, in light of structural models for interstratified illite/smectite (I/S). The crystal structure of I/S has been described previously by a nonpolar and polar 2:1 layer model. In a nonpolar model, individual 2:1 layers are chemically homogeneous, whereas a polar model assumes a 2:1 layer can have a smectite charge on one side and an illite charge on the other side. Several kinds of data support the polar model; however, more determinations of the negative charge of expandable sites in I/S are needed to confirm such a model.

Assuming a polar 2:1 layer model for I/S, we compare the mineralogical and geochemical consequences of several reaction mechanisms for smectite illitization: 1) solid-state transformation (SST), 2) dissolution and crystallization (DC) and 3) Ostwald ripening (OR). Features of an SST model are the replacement of smectite interlayers by illite interlayers, resulting in gradual changes in interlayer ordering, polytype, chemical and isotopic composition and crystal size and shape. Several SST models are possible depending on the nature of the reaction site (framework cations, polyhedra or interlayers). In contrast, DC models allow for abrupt changes in the structure, composition and texture of I/S as illitization proceeds. Several DC models are possible depending on the nature of the rate-controlling step, for example, diffusional transport or surface reactions during crystal growth. The OR model represents the coarsening of a single mineral where the smallest crystals dissolve and nucleate onto existing larger crystals, allowing for evolution in the overgrowth but not in the template crystal.

An SST mechanism, involving either reacting polyhedra or reacting interlayers, seems to best model illitization in rock-dominated systems such as bentonite. A DC mechanism seems to best model illitization in fluid-dominated systems such as sandstone and hydrothermal environments. Both DC and SST mechanisms can occur in shale. Differences in reaction mechanism may be related to permeability. An OR model poorly describes illitization because of the progressive mineralogical and chemical changes involved. For many geologic environments, it is important to consider alternate origins for I/S such as kaolinite illitization and detrital. Further work is needed to clarify the DC crystal growth process in terms of a structural model of I/S and to determine which specific SST or DC model best characterizes illitization in geologic systems.

Keywords

IlliteIllite/SmectiteMixed-LayerReaction MechanismSmectite
Type
Research Article
Information
Clays and Clay Minerals , Volume 45 , Issue 4 , August 1997 , pp. 517 - 533
Copyright
Copyright © 1997, The Clay Minerals Society

References

Ahn, J.H. and Buseck, P.R., 1990 Layer-stacking sequences and structural disorder in mixed-layer illite/smectite: Image simulations and HRTEM imaging Am Mineral 75 267–275.Google Scholar
Ahn, J.H. and Peacor, D.R., 1986 Transmission and analytical electron microscopy of the smectite-to-illite transition Clays Clay Miner 34 165–179 10.1346/CCMN.1986.0340207.Google Scholar
Ahn, J.H. and Peacor, D.R., 1986 Transmission electron microscope data for rectorite: Implications for the origin and structure of “fundamental particles” Clays Clay Miner 34 180–186 10.1346/CCMN.1986.0340208.Google Scholar
Aja, S.U. Rosenberg, P.E. and Kittrick, J.A., 1991 Mite equilibria in solutions: I. Phase relationships in the system K2O-A12O3-SiO2-H2O between 25 and 250 °C Geochim Cosmochim Acta 55 1353–1364 10.1016/0016-7037(91)90313-T.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, F. and Buseck, P.R., 1992 Mineral definition by transmission electron microscopy: Problems and opportunities Rev Mineral 27: Minerals and reactions at the atomic scale: Transmission electron microscopy Chelsea, MI Mineral Soc Am 289–333 10.1515/9781501509735-012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altaner, S.P. and Bethke, C.M., 1988 Interlayer order in illite/smectite Am Mineral 73 766–774.Google Scholar
Altaner, S.P. Weiss, C.A. and Kirkpatrick, R.J., 1988 Evidence from 29Si NMR for the structure of mixed-layer illite/smectite clay minerals Nature 331 699–702 10.1038/331699a0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altaner, S.P. Whitney, G. Aronson, J.L. and Hower, J., 1984 A model for K-bentonite formation: Evidence from zoned K-ben-tonites in the disturbed belt, Montana Geology 12 412–415 10.1130/0091-7613(1984)12<412:MFKFEF>2.0.CO;2.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amouric, M. and Olives, J., 1991 Illitization of smectite as seen by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy Eur J Mineral 3 831–835 10.1127/ejm/3/5/0831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aronson, J.L. and Burtner, R.L., 1983 K/Ar dating of illitic clays in Jurassic Nugget Sandstone and timing of petroleum migration in Wyoming Overthrust Belt Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 67 414.Google Scholar
Aronson, J.L. and Hower, J., 1976 Mechanism of burial metamorphism of argillaceous sediment: 2. Radiogenic argon evidence Geol Soc Am Bull 87 738–744 10.1130/0016-7606(1976)87<738:MOBMOA>2.0.CO;2.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Awwiller, D.N., 1993 Illite/smectite formation and potassium mass transfer during burial diagenesis of mudrocks: A study from the Texas Gulf Coast Paleocene-Eocene J Sed Petrol 63 501–512.Google Scholar
Baronnet, A., 1982 Ostwald ripening in solution: The case of calcite and mica Estudios Geologicos 38 185–198.Google Scholar
Baronnet, A. and Buseck, P.R., 1992 Polytypism and stacking disorder Rev Mineral 27: Minerals and reactions at the atomic scale: Transmission electron microscopy Chelsea, MI Mineral Soc Am 231–288 10.1515/9781501509735-011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barron, P.F. Slade, P. and Frost, R.L., 1985 Ordering of aluminum in tetrahedral sites in mixed-layer 2:1 phyllosilicates by solid-state high-resolution NMR J Phys Chem 89 3880–3885 10.1021/j100264a023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, T.E., 1986 Microstructure in mixed-layer illite/smectite and its relationship to the reaction of smectite to illite Clays Clay Miner 34 146–154 10.1346/CCMN.1986.0340205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berner, R.A., 1980 Early diagenesis: A theoretical approach New York McGraw-Hill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bethke, C.M. and Altaner, S.P., 1986 Layer-by-layer mechanism of smectite illitization and application to a new rate law Clays Clay Miner 34 136–145 10.1346/CCMN.1986.0340204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bethke, C.M. Vergo, N. and Altaner, S.P., 1986 Pathways of smectite illitization Clays Clay Miner 34 125–135 10.1346/CCMN.1986.0340203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boles, J.R. and Franks, S.G., 1979 Clay diagenesis in Wilcox sandstones of southwest Texas: Implications of smectite diagenesis on sandstone cementation J Sed Petrol 49 55–70.Google Scholar
Brown, G. Weir, A.H., Rosenqvist, I.T. and Graff-Petersen, P., 1965 The identity of rectorite and al-levardite Proc Int Clay Conf Stockholm. Oxford Pergamon Pr 27–35.Google Scholar
Bruce, C.H., 1984 Smectite dehydration: Its relation to structural development and hydrocarbon accumulation in northern Gulf of Mexico basin Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 68 673–683.Google Scholar
Burst, J.F., 1969 Diagenesis of Gulf Coast clayey sediments and its possible relation to petroleum migration Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 53 73–93.Google Scholar
Cetin, K. and Huff, W.D., 1995 Layer charge of the expandable component of illite/smectite in K-bentonite as determined by alkylammonium ion exchange Clays Clay Miner 43 150–158 10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cetin, K. and Huff, W.D., 1995 Characterization of untreated and alkylammonium ion exchanged illite/smectite by high resolution transmission electron microscopy Clays Clay Miner 43 337–345 10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chermak, J.A. and Rimstidt, J.D., 1990 The hydrothermal transformation of kaolinite to muscovite/illite Geochim Cosmochim Acta 54 2979–2990 10.1016/0016-7037(90)90115-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crossey, L.J. Surdam, R.C. Lahann, R.L. and Gautier, D.L., 1986 Application of organic/inorganic diagenesis to porosity prediction Role of organic matter in sediment diagenesis, SEPM Spec Pub 38 Tulsa Soc Econ Paleo Mineral 147–155 10.2110/pec.86.38.0147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clauer, N. Furlan, S. and Chaudhuri, S., 1995 The illitization process in deeply buried shales of the Gulf Coast area Clays Clay Miner 43 257–259 10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drits, V.A., Schultz, L.G. van Olphen, H. and Mumpton, F.A., 1987 Mixed-layer minerals: Diffraction methods and structural features Proc Int Clay Conf Denver. Bloomington, IN Clay Miner Soc 33–45.Google Scholar
Drits, V.A. Weber, F. Salyn, A.L. and Tsipursky, S.I., 1993 X-ray identification of one-layer illite varieties: Application to the study of illites around uranium deposits of Canada Clays Clay Miner 41 389–398 10.1346/CCMN.1993.0410316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drits, V.A. Salyn, A.L. and Sucha, V., 1996 Structural transformations of interstratified illite-smectites from Dolna Ves hydrothermal deposits: Dynamics and mechanisms Clays Clay Miner 44 181–190 10.1346/CCMN.1996.0440203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eberl, D.D., 1993 Three zones for illite formation during burial diagenesis and metamorphism Clays Clay Miner 41 26–37 10.1346/CCMN.1993.0410103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eberl, D.D. and Srodon, J., 1988 Ostwald ripening and interparticle-diffraction effects for illite crystals Am Mineral 73 1335–1345.Google Scholar
Eberl, D.D. Srodon, J. Kralik, M. Taylor, B.E. and Peterman, Z.E., 1990 Ostwald ripening of clays and metamorphic minerals Science 248 474–477 10.1126/science.248.4954.474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eberl, D.D. Srodon, J. Northrop, H.R., Davis, J.A. and Hayes, K.F., 1986 Potassium fixation in smectite by wetting and drying Geochemical Processes at Mineral Surfaces, Am Chem Soc Symp Series 323. Am Chem Soc 296–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliott, W.C. Aronson, J.L. Matisoff, G. and Gautier, D.L., 1991 Kinetics of the smectite to illite transformation in the Denver basin: Clay mineral, K/Ar data, and mathematical model results Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 75 436–462.Google Scholar
Eslinger, E.V. and Yeh, H.W., 1986 Oxygen and hydrogen isotope geochemistry of Cretaceous bentonites and shales from the disturbed belt, Montana Geochim Cosmochim Acta 50 59–68 10.1016/0016-7037(86)90048-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freed, R.L. and Peacor, D.R., 1989 Geopressured shale and sealing effect of smectite to illite transition Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 73 1223–1232.Google Scholar
Freed, R.L. and Peacor, D.R., 1992 Diagenesis and the formation of Ulite-rich I/S crystals in Gulf Coast shales: A TEM study of clay separates J Sed Petrol 62 220–234.Google Scholar
Glasmann, J.R. Lartner, S. Briedis, N.A. and Lundegard, P.D., 1989 Shale diagenesis in the Bergen High area, North Sea Clays Clay Miner 37 97–112 10.1346/CCMN.1989.0370201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Güven, N., 1991 On the definition of illite/smectite mixed-layer Clays Clay Miner 39 661–662 10.1346/CCMN.1991.0390613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, R.L. Lee, M. Kolata, D.R. Matthews, J.C. and Morton, J.P., 1988 Episodic potassic diagenesis of Ordovician tuffs in the Mississippi Valley area Geology 16 743–747 10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0743:EPDOOT>2.3.CO;2.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, J. Hower, J., Scholle, P.A. and Schluger, P.R., 1979 Clay mineral assemblages as low grade metamorphic geothermometers: Application to the thrust faulted disturbed belt of Montana, USA Aspects of diagenesis, SEPM Spec Pub 26 Tulsa Soc Econ Paleo Mineral 55–79 10.2110/pec.79.26.0055.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, J. Hower, J. and Aronson, J.L., 1976 Radiometric dating of time of thrusting in the disturbed belt of Montana Geology 4 16–20 10.1130/0091-7613(1976)4<16:RDOTOT>2.0.CO;2.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hower, J. Eslinger, E.V. Hower, M.E. and Perry, E.A., 1976 Mechanism of burial metamorphism of argillaceous sediment: 1. Mineralogical and chemical evidence Geol Soc Am Bull 87 725–737 10.1130/0016-7606(1976)87<725:MOBMOA>2.0.CO;2.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hower, J. and Longstaffe, F.J., 1981 Shale diagenesis Clays and the Resource Geologist, Mineral Assoc Can Short Course Handbook 7 Edmonton Coop 60–80.Google Scholar
Huang, W.L., Houseknecht, D.W. and Pittman, E.D., 1992 Illitic clay formation during experimental diagenesis of arkoses Origin, diagenesis, and petrophysics of clay minerals in sandstones, SEPM Spec Pub 47 Tulsa Soc Econ Paleo Mineral 49–63 10.2110/pec.92.47.0049.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, W.L. Longo, J.M. and Pevear, D.R., 1993 An experimentally derived kinetic model for smectite-to-illite conversion and its use as a geothermometer Clays Clay Miner 41 162–177 10.1346/CCMN.1993.0410205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunziker, J.C. Frey, M. Clauer, N. Dallmeyer, R.D. Friedrichsen, H. Flehmig, W. Hochstrasser, K. Roggwiler, P. and Schwander, H., 1986 The evolution of illite to muscovite: Mineralogical and isotopic data from the Glarus Alps, Switzerland Contrib Mineral Petrol 92 157–180 10.1007/BF00375291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inoue, A. and Kitagawa, R., 1994 Morphological characteristics of illitic clay minerals from a hydrothermal system Am Mineral 79 700–711.Google Scholar
Inoue, A. Kohyama, N. Kitagawa, R. and Watanabe, T., 1987 Chemical and morphological evidence for the conversion of smectite to illite Clays Clay Miner 35 111–120 10.1346/CCMN.1987.0350203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inoue, A. and Utada, M., 1983 Further investigations of a conversion series of dioctahedral mica/smectites in the Shinzan hydrothermal alteration area, northeast Japan Clays Clay Miner 31 401–412 10.1346/CCMN.1983.0310601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inoue, A. Velde, B. Meunier, A. and Touchard, G., 1988 Mechanism of illite formation during smectite-to-illite conversion in a hydrothermal system Am Mineral 73 1325–1334.Google Scholar
Inoue, A. Watanabe, T. Koyhama, N. and Brusewitz, A.M., 1990 Characterization of illitization of smectite in bentonite beds at Kinnekulle, Sweden Clays Clay Miner 38 241–249 10.1346/CCMN.1990.0380302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jakobsen, H.J. Nielsen, N.C. and Lindgreen, H., 1995 Sequences of charged sheets in rectorite Am Mineral 80 247–252 10.2138/am-1995-3-406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jennings, S. and Thompson, G.R., 1986 Diagenesis of Plio-Pleistocene sediments of the Colorado river delta, southern California J Sed Petrol 56 89–98.Google Scholar
Lagaly, G., 1979 The “layer charge” of regular interstratified 2:1 clay minerals Clays Clay Miner 27 1–10 10.1346/CCMN.1979.0270101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahann, R., 1980 Smectite diagenesis and sandstone cement: The effect of reaction temperature J Sed Petrol 50 755–760 10.1306/212F7AD6-2B24-11D7-8648000102C1865D.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lanson, B. and Champion, D., 1991 The I/S-to-illite reaction in the late stage diagenesis Am J Sci 291 473–506 10.2475/ajs.291.5.473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, M. Aronson, J.L. and Savin, S.M., 1985 K/Ar dating of time of gas emplacement in Rotliegendes sandstone, Netherlands Am Assoc Petrol Geol Bull 69 1381–1385.Google Scholar
Lindgreen, H. and Hansen, P.L., 1991 Ordering of illite-smectite in Upper Jurassic claystones from the North Sea Clay Miner 26 105–125 10.1180/claymin.1991.026.1.10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindgreen, H. Jacobsen, H. and Jakobsen, H.J., 1991 Diagenetic structural transformations in North Sea Jurassic illite/smectite Clays Clay Miner 39 54–69 10.1346/CCMN.1991.0390108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarty, D.K. and Reynolds, R.C., 1995 Rotationally disordered illite/smectite in Paleozoic K-bentonites Clays Clay Miner 43 271–284 10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murakami, T. Sato, T. and Watanabe, T., 1993 Microstructure of interstratified illite/smectite at 123 K: A new method for HRTEM examination Am Mineral 78 465–468.Google Scholar
Nadeau, P.H., 1985 The physical dimensions of fundamental clay particles Clay Miner 20 499–514 10.1180/claymin.1985.020.4.06.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nadeau, P.H., 1987 Relationships between the mean area, volume and thickness for dispersed particles of kaolinites and micaceous clays and their application to surface area and ion exchange properties Clay Miner 22 351–356 10.1180/claymin.1987.022.3.10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nadeau, P.H. and Bain, D.C., 1986 Composition of some smectites and diagenetic illitic clays and implications for their origin Clays Clay Miner 34 455–464 10.1346/CCMN.1986.0340412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nadeau, P.H. Wilson, M.J. McHardy, W.J. and Tait, J.M., 1984 Interstratified clays as fundamental particles Science 225 923–925 10.1126/science.225.4665.923.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nadeau, P.H. Wilson, M.J. McHardy, W.J. and Tait, J.M., 1985 The conversion of smectite to illite during diagenesis: Evidence from some illitic clays from bentonites and sandstones Mineral Mag 49 393–400 10.1180/minmag.1985.049.352.10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pevear, D.R. Williams, V.E. and Mustoe, G.E., 1980 Kaolinite, smectite, and K-rectorite in bentonites: Relation to coal rank at Tulameen, British Columbia Clays Clay Miner 28 241–254 10.1346/CCMN.1980.0280401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollard, C.O., 1971 Appendix: Semidisplacive mechanism for diagenetic alteration of montmorillonite layers to illite layers Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 134 79–93.Google Scholar
Pollastro, R.M., 1985 Mineralogical and morphological evidence for the formation of illite at the expense of illite/ smectite Clays Clay Miner 33 265–274 10.1346/CCMN.1985.0330401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Primmer, T.J., 1994 Some comments on the chemistry and stability of interstratified illite-smectite and the role of Ost-wald-type processes Clay Miner 29 63–68 10.1180/claymin.1994.029.1.07.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pytte, A.M. Reynolds, R.C., Naeser, N.D. and McCulloh, T.H., 1989 The thermal transformation of smectite to illite Thermal history of sedimentary basins: Methods and case histories New York Springer-Verlag 133–140 10.1007/978-1-4612-3492-0_8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ransom, B. and Helgeson, H.C., 1989 Correlation of expandability with mineralogy and layering in mixed-layer clays Clays Clay Miner 37 189–191 10.1346/CCMN.1989.0370212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ransom, B. and Helgeson, H.C., 1993 Compositional end members and thermodynamic components of illite and dioctahedral aluminous smectite solid solutions Clays Clay Miner 41 537–550 10.1346/CCMN.1993.0410503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, R.C. Jr., Brindley, G.W. and Brown, G., 1980 Interstratified clay minerals Crystal structures of clay minerals and their X-ray identification, Mineral Soc Monograph 5 London Mineral Soc 249–304.Google Scholar
Reynolds, R.C. Jr., 1992 X-ray diffraction studies of illite/ smectite from rocks, <1 μm randomly oriented powders, and <1 μm oriented powder aggregates: The absence of laboratory-induced artifacts Clays Clay Miner 40 387–396 10.1346/CCMN.1992.0400403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, R.C. Jr., Reynolds, R.C. Jr and Walker, J.R., 1993 Three dimensional X-ray powder diffraction from disordered illite: Simulation and interpretation of the diffraction patterns Computer applications to X-ray powder diffraction analysis of clay minerals, CMS Workshop Lectures 5 Boulder, CO Clay Miner Soc 43–78.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, P.E. Kittrick, J.A. and Aja, S.U., 1990 Mixed-layer illite/smectite: A multiphase model Am Mineral 75 1182–1185.Google Scholar
Rossel, N.C., 1982 Clay mineral diagenesis in Rotliegend eo-lian sandstones of the southern North Sea Clay Miner 17 69–77 10.1180/claymin.1982.017.1.07.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoonmaker, J. Mackenzie, F.T. and Speed, R.C., 1986 Tectonic implications of illite/smectite diagenesis, Barbados accre-tionary prism Clays Clay Miner 34 465–472 10.1346/CCMN.1986.0340413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shutov, V.D. Drits, V.A. Sakarov, B.A., Heller, L. and Weiss, A., 1969 On the mechanism of a postsedimentary transformation of montmorillonite into hydromica Proc Int Clay Conf Tokyo. Jerusalem Israel Univ Pr 523–532.Google Scholar
Środoń, J. Andreoli, C. Elsass, F. and Robert, M., 1990 Direct high-resolution transmission electron microscopic measurement of expandability of mixed-layer illite/smectite in bentonite rock Clays Clay Miner 38 373–379 10.1346/CCMN.1990.0380406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Środon, J. Elsass, F. McHardy, W.J. and Morgan, D.J., 1992 Chemistry of illite-smectite inferred from TEM measurements of fundamental particles Clay Miner 27 137–158 10.1180/claymin.1992.027.2.01.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sucha, V. Kraus, I. Gerthofferova, H. Petes, J. and Serekova, M., 1993 Smectite to illite conversion in bentonites and shales of the East Slovak basin Clay Miner 28 243–253 10.1180/claymin.1993.028.2.06.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, J.B., 1978 Biopyriboles and polysomatic series Am Mineral 63 239–249.Google Scholar
Vali, H. and Hess, R., 1990 Alkylammonium ion treatment of clay minerals in ultra thin section: A new method for HRTEM examination of expandable layers Am Mineral 75 1443–1446.Google Scholar
Vali, H. Hess, R. and Kohler, E.E., 1991 Combined freeze-etch replicas and HRTEM images as tools to study fundamental particles and the multiphase nature of 2:1 layer silicates Am Mineral 76 1973–1984.Google Scholar
Veblen, D.R. and Buseck, P.R., 1992 Electron microscopy applied to nonstoi-chiometry, polysomatism, and replacement reactions in minerals Rev Mineral 27, Minerals and reactions at the atomic scale: Transmission electron microscopy Chelsea, MI Mineral Soc Am 181–229 10.1515/9781501509735-010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veblen, D.R. Guthrie, G.D. Livi, K.J.T. and Reynolds, R.C., 1990 High-resolution transmission electron microscopy and electron diffraction of mixed-layer illite/smectite: Experimental results Clays Clay Miner 38 1–13 10.1346/CCMN.1990.0380101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, C.E. and Beck, K.C., 1971 Clay water diagenesis during burial: How mud becomes gneiss Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 134 1–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitney, G., 1990 Role of water in the smectite to illite reaction Clays Clay Miner 38 343–350 10.1346/CCMN.1990.0380402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitney, G. and Northrop, H.R., 1988 Experimental investigation of the smectite to illite reaction: Dual reaction mechanisms and oxygen-isotope systematics Am Mineral 73 77–90.Google Scholar
Whitney, G. and Velde, B., 1993 Changes in particle morphology during illitization: An experimental study Clays Clay Miner 41 209–218 10.1346/CCMN.1993.0410209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, M.J., 1990 Fundamental particles and interstratified clay minerals: Current perspectives Mineral Petrogr Acta 33 5–14.Google Scholar
Yau, L. Peacor, D.R. and McDowell, S.D., 1987 Smectite-to-illite reactions in Saltan Sea shales: A transmission and analytical electron microscopy study J Sed Petrol 57 335–342.Google Scholar