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The Woman Clothed in the Sun: Pacifism and Apocalyptic Discourse among Russian Spiritual Christian Molokan-Jumpers
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 March 2011
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With its violent images of heavenly and earthly combat, the book of Revelation has been criticized for promoting a vengeful and distorted version of Christ's teachings. Gerd Lüdemann, for example, has attacked the book as part of the “dark side of the Bible,” and Jonathan Kirsch believes that the pernicious influence of Revelation “can be detected in some of the worst atrocities and excesses of every age, including our own.” Yet, surprisingly, nonviolent pacifists have also drawn on the Apocalypse for encouragement and support. This was especially true for generations of Russian Spiritual Christians (dukhovnye khristiane), a significant religious minority whose roots trace at least as far back as the 1760s, when the first “spirituals” (dukhovnye) were arrested and tried in Russia's southern provinces of Tambov and Voronezh. Although they drew upon apocalyptic martial imagery, the Spiritual Christians were pacifists, some of whom came to identify themselves with the Woman Clothed in the Sun of Revelation 12.
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References
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47 Ibid., 9:2:4.
48 Ibid., 278–79, 4:6:16.
49 Ibid., 228, 2:19:7.
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63 Alex J. Valoff claimed that Tolmachev's wife, Mariia Filippovna Novikova, was Rudometkin's niece, and this family connection eventually made him the caretaker of the sacred writings. According to another Molokan genealogy, Aleksei Sergeevich Tolmachev's mother, Tat'iana Arkhipovna Sukovitsyna, was Maksim's niece (Fae Veronin, Molokans in Arizona [n.p., 1999], 32–33).
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67 Wren, True Believers, 21.
68 Ibid., 22–23. Some Molokan-Jumpers continued to pose for pictures, however, as many surviving photographs from the 1910s and 1920s show. S. V. Geiman, Tipy russkikh kolonistov v S. Sh.S.A.: Sektanty, fermera, rybaki, uglekopy, i dr.; albom fotograficheskikh snimkov (n.p., [191_?]), available from the New York Public Library Digital Gallery, http://digitalgallery.nypl.org; Fae Papin Veronin, Molokans in Arizona (n.p., 1999); Veronin, Lukian and Fenya Conovaloff Family Tree (n.p., 2009), 7.
69 Moore, Molokan Oral Tradition, 50. Mokhov was a person of considerable prestige who had petitioned the tsar to grant Molokans exemption from military service and later, in 1904, had through his prophecies encouraged his co-religionists to emigrate. Mohoff, George W., The Russian Colony of Guadalupe: Molokans in Mexico (Montebello, Calif.: George W. Mohoff, 1993), 3Google Scholar.
70 The Glendale Molokans apparently did not receive this particular prohibition, for at his court-martial on November 21, 1918, Ivan Vasil'evich Kulikov (John Kulikoff) wore leather shoes and explained that the Holy Spirit “does not say anything about shoes. When he tells me to take off shoes, I will take the shoes off too.” William Haas Moore, “Prisoners in the Promised Land: The Story of the Molokans in World War I” (master's thesis, Arizona State University, 1972), 72.
71 Wren, True Believers, 25–27.
72 Breyfogle, Heretics, 217–18. Mikhail Pivovarov admired the Dukhobors' radical pacifism, and the ritual burning of arms seems to be a conscious imitation of the 1895 protest on a much smaller scale. Dunn, Ethel, “American Molokans and Canadian Dukhobors: Economic Position and Ethnic Identity,” in Ethnicity in the Americas, ed. Henry, Frances S. (Chicago: Aldine, 1976), 105Google Scholar.
73 Wren, True Believers, 28.
74 Uren's surname is also spelled Iurin. “Slovo bozhestvennogo razuma,” in Bozhestvennye izrecheniia nastavnikov i stradal'tsev za slovo bozhie, veru Iisusa i dukh sviatoi religii dukhovnykh khristian molokan-prygunov, 3rd ed. (Los Angeles: Dukh i zhizn', 1947), 757Google Scholar; Kathy Popoff, “A Descriptive Study of the Russian Molokan Community of Glendale, Arizona” (bachelor's thesis, Arizona State University, 1971), 27.
75 Wren, True Believers, 30.
76 Ibid., 28–31; “Molokans Will Go to Jail Rather than Go to War,” Arizona Gazette, 26 July 1917Google Scholar.
77 Klibanov, Narodnaia sotsial'naia utopia, 2:140–210.
78 Wren, True Believers, 32–39.
79 Berokoff, Molokans in America, chap. 3; Deliara Ibragim-kyzy Ismail-zade, , Russkoe krest'ianstvo v zakavkaz'e, 30e gody XIX – nachalo XX v. (Moscow: Nauka, 1982), 295, 299Google Scholar.
80 Moore, Molokan Oral Tradition, 22.
81 Veronin, Molokans, 19.
82 Coffman, Edward M., The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), 27–29, 74–76Google Scholar.
83 Wren, True Believers, 41.
84 Ibid., 42–43.
85 “Glendale Molokans Decline,” Arizona Republican, 6 June 1917Google Scholar.
86 “Will Swear Out Warrants for Molokanas in County: Russian Members of Religious Sect, Who Refused Yesterday to Register, Must Answer to the Law,” Arizona Gazette, 6 June 1917Google Scholar.
87 “Glendale Molokans Decline.”
88 Byrkit, James W., Forging the Copper Collar: Arizona's Labor-Management War of 1901–1921 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982), 89–92Google Scholar; Goff, John S., George W. P. Hunt and His Arizona (Pasadena, Calif.: Socio Technical Publications, 1973), 95–97Google Scholar.
89 “Molokanas Maintain Registering Is an Act of War on Their Part,” Arizona Gazette, 7 June 1917Google Scholar; “Gives Molokanas One More Chance,” Arizona Gazette, 8 June 1917Google Scholar.
90 “Jail for the Anti-War Russians,” Arizona Republican, 10 June 1917Google Scholar.
91 “Molokanas in Jail Worship Fervently to the Annoyance of Other Prisoners,” Arizona Gazette, 11 June 1917Google Scholar. Compare this to the positive reports when the Molokans first settled in Glendale in 1911: “Many Settlers on Their Way to Glendale,” Arizona Gazette, 30 August 1911Google Scholar; “Russian Colonists Find in Salt River Valley an Ideal Place to Make Their Homes and Till the Soil,” Arizona Gazette, 8 September 1911Google Scholar; “Arizona Satisfies Russian Colonists,” Arizona Republican, 13 September 1911Google Scholar.
92 “Fifty Slackers Will Face Court Here Tomorrow,” Arizona Gazette, 30 July 1917Google Scholar.
93 “Soldiers Rout Butte Rioters,” New York Times, 5 June 1917, p. 1Google Scholar.
94 “Jail for Anti-War Russians,” Arizona Republican, 10 June 1917Google Scholar.
95 “Trial of Molokanas for Slackering Goes on Today,” Arizona Gazette, 7 August 1917Google ScholarPubMed.
96 “Only Blessed Bread for a Holy Jumper,” Prescott Journal Miner, 10 August 1917Google Scholar.
97 Wren, True Believers, 89–90.
98 Ibid., 100–101.
99 “Russians Refusing All Food,” Arizona Republican, 19 October 1917Google Scholar.
100 Wren, True Believers, 104–5.
101 Ibid., 105.
102 Ibid.
103 Kellogg, Walter Guest, The Conscientious Objector (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1919), 48Google Scholar.
104 Political Prisoners in Federal Military Prisons (New York: National Civil Liberties Bureau, 1918), 14Google Scholar.
105 Moore, “Prisoners,” 84; Wren, True Believers, 162–63.