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Gabriel Biel and Late Medieval Mysticism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 July 2009

Heiko A. Oberman
Heiko A. Oberman
Affiliation:
Harvard Divinity School
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Extract

Though periodization is admittedly a matter of opinion, there is much to warrant the thesis that the later Middle Ages were born in Avignon and were shaped by the uncertainty and hierarchical confusion due to the Babylonian Captivity of the papacy (1309-1377) and the succeeding period of the Schism (1378-1415). The impact, especially of this latter event, can scarcely be overestimated, so much so that we are included to advocate the terms “pre-schismatic and schismatic Middle Ages” to replace the traditional terms “early and later Middle Ages.”

Type
Research Article
Information
Church History , Volume 30 , Issue 3 , September 1961 , pp. 259 - 287
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Church History 1961

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References

1. Denzinger, Henricus, Enchiridion Symbolorum, Freiburg 1937 23, 468–469.Google Scholar

2. Cf. the otherwise useful survey of Pacaut, Marcel, La Théocratie, L'Église et le Pouvoir au Moyen Age, Paris 1957, 200ff.Google Scholar Cf.d'Entrèves, Alexander Passerin, The Medievel Contribution to Political Thought, New York 1959 2, 86.Google Scholar

3. Denzinger, 494.

4. “Nunquam in ecclesia fuit minor devotio.” in Sermons choisis de Michel Menot, ed. Neve, Paris 1924, 16.Google Scholar “Sed frater, quare non ponitur remedium cum abusus sit adeo magnus? Amice, non habeo hominem”; op. cit., 343. “Nec de ea spem magnam habemus, nisi iterum de novo planteretur”; op. cit., 374. The restitutio idea as expressed in this iterum de novo is according to modern scholars of the Radical Reformation the characteristic of this movement; this idea is then contrasted with the reformatio idea of the Magisterial Reformation. A survey of late medieval sermonic literature indicates, however, that the resitutio idea marks the rise of the donatistic tide towards the end of the Middle Ages and is not restricted to such isolated groups as the Waldensians and Fraticelli, to which the Radical Reformation is usually related.

5. Cf. Werner, Ernst, Pauperes Christi, Studien in social-religiösen Bewegungen im Zeitalter des Reformpapsttums, Leipzig 1956, 165ff.Google Scholar

6. Pelzer, A. “Les 51 articles de Guillaume Occam, censurées en Avignon en 1326,” in RHE XVIII (1922), 240ffGoogle Scholar; Koch, J., “Neue Aktenstücke zu dem gegen Wilhelm Ockham in Avignon geführten Prozess,” in: RTAM VII (1935), 353fGoogle Scholar; VIII (1936), 79ff, 168ff.

7. Denz., 501ff; complete text Denifle, H. S., ALKM, II (1886), 636ffGoogle Scholar; Laurent, M. H., “Autour du procès de Maître Eckhardt… Les documents vaticanes,” in Divus Thomas XIII (1936), 331ff; 430ff.Google Scholar Cf. the excellent contribution by Karrer, Otto and Piesch, Herma, Meister Eckeharts Rechtfertigungsschrift, Erfurt 1927.Google Scholar

8. “Faith was intact but to follow Ockham was to give up any hope of achieving, in this life, a positive philosophical understanding of its intelligible meaning.” Gilson, Etienne, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, London 1955, 498.Google Scholar “Les données de la foi qu'il déclare inaccessibles à la raison ne tarderont pas a être jugées contraires à la raison.” de Wulf, Maurice, Histoire de la Philosophie Medievale, III, Paris 1947, 46.Google Scholar Cf. however the criticism of Boehner, Philoteus, “A Recent Presentation of Ockham's Philosophy,” in FS 9 (1949), 443 ffGoogle Scholar; “…le nominalisme terministe était une doctrine trop sèche et trop formelle… pour ne pas provoquer une révolte de la sensibilité et ne pas rejeter les esprits vers le mysticisme.” Renaudet, A., Préréforme et Humanisme à Paris pendant les premières guerres d'Italic 1494–1517, Paris 1953, 67–68.Google Scholar “Chezles élèves d'Ockham, la doctrine nonvelle ne créa qu'une soumission inerte à un dogme qui cessait de parler à l'esprit et au coeur.” Ibid., 66.

9. “Zunächst ist es klar, dass Nominalismus und Mystik in scharfem Gegensatz zueinanderstehen…. Das Erfahrungsprinzip, das die Nominalisten auf die natürliche Dinge anwenden, wird von diesen mystischen Theologen in Bezug auf Gott und sein Wirken gebraucht. Darin ist die Differenz wie die Gemeinsamkeit des beiderseitigen Interesses enthalten, daraus begreift sich auch die beiderseitige Gleichgültigkeit dem kirchlichen Dogma gegenüber.” Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte III5, Basel 1953, 675.Google Scholar

10. “Man kaun wohl die Frage: Worin unterscheidet sich Luther vom Nominalismus? durch den Hinweis auf seine Beziehung zur Mystik beantworten; wie man umgekehrt sagen kann, dass es gerade die positivistischen… Elemente der ockhamistischen Theologie sind, die ihn letzlich von der Mystik unterscheiden.” Luther's Theologie in ihren Grundzügen, Stuttgart 1950 2, 39f.Google Scholar

11. Art. “Contemplation” in Dictionnaire de spiritualité II, Paris 1953, col. 1643ff.Google Scholar Cf. the excellent introduction by Petry, Ray C., Late Medieval Mysticism, Philadelphia 1957, 17ffGoogle Scholar; Underhill, Evelyn, Mysticism. New York 1930 12, 72Google Scholar; Sharp, A. B., Mysticism, Its True Nature and Value, London 1910, 74, 96.Google Scholar

12. ST II II. q 180. art 3. ad 2: “contemplatio pertinet ad simplicem intuitum veritatis.” Cf. Contra Gentiles II, q. 83Google Scholar: “finis igitur hominis est pervenire ad veritatis contemplationem.”

13. “Ici bas comme au ciel, imparfaite ou parfaite, la contemplation est formellement un acte d'intelligence. Non que la volonté n'y joue un grand rôle, mais l'intelligence est la faculté qui saisit la verité.” Joret, F. D., La Contemplation mystique d'après S. Thomas d'Aquin, Lille 1923, 54.Google Scholar

14. Etienne Gilson, op. cit., 440.

15. Die lateinische Werke, ed. Ernst Benz, Josef Koch, Stuttgart 1939, V, 40ff.Google Scholar

16. Quint, J., Die deutsche Werke Meister Eckharts, I, Predigten, Stuttgart 1936; 11, 178, 4ffGoogle Scholar; 12, 193, 3ff. Pfeiffer, Franz, Meister Eckhart, Göttingen 1924 4, XVIII, 78, 22ff.Google Scholar

17. Pfeiffer, op. cit., 467, 6ff: “Dâ wirt die sêle vereinet in der blözen gotheit, daz si nimmer mêr müge funden werden, als vil al ein tropfe wînes mittem in dem mer.” Cf. Tauler, , Vetter, F., Die Predigten Taulers, Berlin 1910, 33Google Scholar; Suso, , Diepenbrock, M., Heinrich Suso's, genannt Amandus, Leben und Schriften, Augsburg 1854 3, 266.Google Scholar

18. “… Christus autem semper habuit noticiam intuitivam deitatis secundum humanitatem quia anima eius in instanti creationis fuit beata.” [from the life of the viator] “… excluditur intellectus beati deum clare videntis… viator et comprehensor ex opposito distinguuntur. Ib. I. QQ. Biel, Questio I. Prologi. Cf. III Sent. d 13. q 1. art 3. dub 1.

19. “… omnis cognitio dei viatoris est cognitio fidei.” Biel, III Sent. d 34, q 1. art 2. concl. 1; “… non sit alia patris cognitio guam ea que per fidem, nut narrantis ei ingeritur simpliciter authoritatem.” Gerson, , De simplif cordis XII, Opera omnia, ed. Du Pin Antwerp 1706, III, 461 D.Google Scholar

20. Gerson, De mystica theologia Cons. 39 O; III. 393 C: “Spiritus ergo noster cum deo adheret per intimum amorem, unus spiritus est cum eo per voluntatis conformitatem… Itaque cui sic [Jesus, praying in the Garden] unitur deo et adheret per amorosam voluntatis conformitatein utique stabilitur in eo!” Cf. De Cons. theol. III; I, 157Google Scholar; De Mystica theol. spec. 39 O; III, 393. Biel: “… gaudium… ex conformitate sue voluntatis cum voluntate paterna.” Lect. 64 F.

21. Butler, , Western Mysticism, London 1926 2Google Scholar; Petry, , “Social Responsibility and the Late Medieval Mystics,” in Church History, XXI (1952) 3ff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar I do not see, however, how Maria Lücker could come to the conclusion that Eckhart teaches that the contemplative life would merely form the introductory stage for the active life. Meister Eckhart und die Devotio Moderna, Leiden 1950, 9.Google Scholar Cf. Pfeiffer, op. cit., IX, 53. 1ff: “Maria was ê Martha, ê si Mâria würde…”

22. “… theologiam mysticam sic possumus describere: theologia mystica est extensio animi in deum per amoris desiderium. Aliter sic: theologia mystica est experimentalis cognitio habita de deo per amoris intuitivi complexum. Aliter sic: theologia mystica eat sapientia sapida noticia habita de deo dum ei supremus apex affective potentie rationalis per amorem coniungitur et unitur.” De Mystica theologia speculativa. Cons. 28 E; III, 383.

23. “Speculative theologia est in potentia intellectiva cuius obiectum est verum. Mysticam vero reponimus in potentia affectiva cui pro obiecto bonum assignamus.” Ibid. Cons. 29 F; III, 384.

24. We have therefore to disagree with Ray Petry's conclusion: “Perhaps of more working validity than the speculative-affective character is the applicability of the threefold way to the mystic experience.” Late Medieval Mysticism, 21. As we will see, the interpretation of the threefold way depends on the prior question in which of the two schools the mystic stands.

25. Cf. Altenstaig, Johannes, Vocabularius theologie, Hagenau 1517Google Scholar; this invaluable dictionary of late medieval theology is essentially an inventory of the nominalistic theological vocabulary. After Gabriel Biel, John Gerson is the second authority to whom Altenstaig turns for reference; with regard to such mystical terms as, e.g., “assimilatio,” “abyssus,” and “status beatitudinis” Gerson becomes the main and in most cases the sole authority.

26. “Auch sein Kampf gegen den von ihm falsch verstaudenen Ruysbroeck bestätigt seine Distanz von der wirklichen Mystik.” Dresz, Walter, Die Theologie Gersons, Gütersloh 1931, 50.Google Scholar For Gerson's criticism on Ruysbroeck see André Combes, Essai sur la critique de Ruysbroeck par Gerson, II, La première critique gersonienne du De ornatu spiritualium nuptiarum, Paris 1948.Google Scholar According to Combes, Gerson's nominalism prevents him from admitting more than a moral union and forces him thus to do Ruysbroeck injustice: “Ne conçevant pas de moyen terme entre la métaphysique et la morale et ne pouvant réduire la troisième partie du De ornatu à une thèse d'union morale entre l'homme et Dieu, il a rétréci ses textes scripturaires aux limites d'une pure morale…,” op. cit., 249.

27. Ehrle, Fr. characterizes Gerson's thought as “Reaktion gegen den Ockamismus,” Der Sentenzen Kommentar Peters von Candia, des Pisaner Papstes Alexander V, Munster 1. W. 1925, 92.Google Scholar Cf. Connolly, James, John Gerson, Reformer and Mystic, Louvain 1928, 85Google Scholar: “… though his training and the whole tradition of his learning was Nominalistic, Gerson was a Realist in his Theology and in his Mysticism,” op. cit., 236. Connolly refers here to Bess, B., “Gerson, Joh. Charlier,” article in RE, VI, 613,Google Scholar Leipzig 1899; Schwab, J.B., Johann Gerson, Professor der Theologie und Kanzler der Universität Paris, Wurzburg 1858, 311.Google Scholar Cf. also Etienne Gilson, op. cit., 529: “In fact, Gerson had never adhered to nominalism except against a certain realism…” In his analyses of what he calls the “Journey's End” Gilson came to the harsh judgment: “This doctrinal confusion finds its saddened and powerless [sic!] witness in the person of John Gerson …” Ibid., 528.

28. Opera I, 83–106.

29. “… pergere ultra volentes defecerunt scrutnntes scrutiuio. Quo pacto sic Quia certe ea qune in liberrima potestate dei posita erant, dum attingere et ad quasdam necessitatis regulas adducere conati sunt, ipsi evannerunt in cogitationibus suis et obscuratum est insipiens cor eorurn Rom. 1:21. Philosophi igitur dum hoc secreturn divini voluntatis penetrare duce experientia, moliuntur, quidni deficiant? Quoniam sicut divina voluntas huius ratio est, We soils illis scire concessum est, qui bus ipsa voluerit revelare. Ita de incarnatione et de reliquis nostrae fidei articulis…” I, 92.Google Scholar “Et vitium est velle plus quam opportet sapere…” I, 93.

30. “… articulos fidei nulio modo esse contra philosophiam naturalem, sed eidem potius consoni sunt, quamquam eos attingere et invenire suum non est; praesertim nisi praevia fidei revelatione qune tales veritates subministret.” I, 92. Cf. Sermo Dominice IV Adv.: “Deus enim facere potest de crentura sun ad eam secundum beneplacitum suum obligare; suffieit pro rationabili causa, ut dicat: sic mihi placet.” III, 928.

31. References of quotations of St. Thomas in Connolly, op. cit., 286, n.1.

32. “… nec admirari sufficio qualiter patres et fratres minores dimisso tanto doctore … converterunt se ad nescio quos novellos…” I, 91; “…studeo eos quos scotistas appellamus ad concordiam cum aliis doctoribns adducere ….” I, 101.

33. “…obtestor ne quis existimet me velle cuiquarn doctori vel personae vel religioui detrahere.” I, 97.Google Scholar

34. “Concipere itaque quod in divinis sit aliquod esse formale … ut ripa posuit, istud pant in animo meo majorem difficultatem quam sit illa propter quam elucidandam ista talia reperiunter, imo nequeo non videre ista palam esse erronea.” I, 101. Cf. Combes, A. “Jean de Vippa, Jean de Rupa ou Jean de Ripa,” in AHDL 14 (1939), 253ffGoogle Scholar; Id. Jean Gerson commentateur dionysien, Paris 1930, 608ff.Google Scholar

35. Stöckl, A., Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelaiters, II. Mainz 1865, 960f.Google Scholar; Meller, Bernhard, Studien zur Erkenntnislehre des Peter von Ailly, Freiburg 1954, 187ff, 140.Google Scholar

36. Chatelain, H. Denifle-E, Chartularium universitatis Parisiensis III, Paris 1894, 506Google Scholar. Connolly, op. cit., 85, stresses this point to show Gerson's “conversion” from norninnlism to realism.

37. “Nolo putet aliquis, me hoc loco justificatioaem seu defensionem partis illius quae depulsa vel avulsa est suscepisse, fratres praedicatores loquor…” I, 111f. “Ergo non tam quod liceat ex juris rigore quam quid expediat exquiratur.” I, 112.

38. III, 361.

39. “Et quoniam nostrum hactenus studium fuit concordare theologiam hanc mysticam nostra scholastica…” IV, 54.Google Scholar

40. “Alioquin tales theologizant solis auribus corporis… Mystica vero theologia sicut non versatur in tali cognitione literatonia, sic non habet necessariam talem scholam que schola intellectus dici potest, sed ndquiritur per scholam affectus…” Cons. 30 G; III, 385f. “Quis autem appropinquaverit igni et vestimenta eius non ardeant vel calescant?” Cons. 8 P; III, 369.

41. “Sic ergo de theologia speculativa dicimus quod non quelibet perversa est nut perversos inhabitat, nec in ea vitia esse ponimus. Sed in abutentibus ea qualiter nullus in theologia mystica esse potest nisi forsan in modo pretracto per superbiam objective.” Cons. 32 I; III, 387f.

42. “…per exercitium vehemens moralium virtutum disponentium animam ad purgationem et in theologicis illuminantibus eam in beatificis virtutibus eam perficientibus proportionnliter ad tres actus hierarchicos qui sunt purgare, illnminare, et perficire… licet sit suprema et perfictissima notitia ipsa tamen potest haberi a quolibet fideli etiam si sit muliercula vel idiota… Ibid. Cf. III, 406: “Saepe enim ubi minus cognitionis ibi plus affectum.”

43. “…itaque sequebantur (Beghardi) affectus suos sine regula et ordine postposita legem christi, presumptio nequissima precipitavit eos ut dicerent hominem postquam ad pacem tranquillam spiritus pervenisset, absolutum esse legibus divinorum preceptorum…” Cons. 8 P; III, 369. Cf. Denz., 473: “Qnod liii, qui sunt in praedicto gradu perfectionis et spiritu libertatis, non sunt humanae subiecti oboedientiae, nec ad aliqua praecepta ecclesiae obligantur…” Cf. Mens, A., Oorsprong en betekenis van de nederlandse Begÿnen en Begardenbeweging, Antwerpen 1947, 147ff, 198ffGoogle Scholar; McDonnell, E. W., The Beguines and Beghards in Medieval Culture, New Brunswick 1954.Google Scholar Extensive bibliography here.

44. “… pronissimi sunt ad errores, etiam supra indevotos, si non regulaverint affectus suos ad normam legis christi…” Ibid.

45. He quotes the opinion of the flagellants as “… haec flagellatio potior est ad delendum peccata, quam quaecunque confessio…” II, 660. One side remark is the only passage known to us where Gerson contrasts the “once for all” character of Christ's work with the “imitation of Christ” theme, a contrast which would later shape the foundation of the Reformation understanding of justification and sanctification: “Christus autem ex gratia sua (sicut notatur in dicto petri prius allegato [Acts 15:10]) voluit nos misericorditer salvare per sanguinem suum semel effusum…” Ibid.

46. “Lex christi sufficienter data est in praeceptis decalogi…” II, 661. “Lex christi sufficienter ab apostolis et sacris doctoribus explicata…” Ibid., 662. “… cupidius fertur in lila quae sunt adiuventionis suae, quam quae sunt divinae jussionis et hic est unus superbiae gradus…” Ibid., 661–62.

47. “…dum ita fuerit conformis et subdita quod ipsius et dei sit unum velle et unum nolle, quod amicitiae proprium est…” De consolatione theologiae III, prosa 1; I, 157Google Scholar; “… unitur deo et adheret per amorosam voluntatis conformitatem…” De mystica theologea spec. Cons. 39; III, 393.Google Scholar

48. In the essentialist school “… anima perdit se et esse suum et accipit verum esse divinum sic quod iam non est creatura nec per creaturam videt aut amat deum sed est ipse deus qui videtur et amatur.” Cons. 41; III, 394. Cf. the tenth condemnned Eckhartian proposition: “Nos transformamur totaliter in deum et convertimur in eum; simili modo sicut in sacramento panis convertitur in corpus christi; sic ego convertor in eum, quod ipse me operatur sunm esse unum, non simile; per viventem deum verum est, quod ibi nulla est distinctio.” Dens., 510.

49. “Hanc etiam nisus est renovare auctor illius tractatus cuius titulus est ‘de ornatu spiritualium nuptiarum’…” On the contrary, “… anima talis semper remanet in esse suo proprio quod habet in suo genere sed dicitur tantummodo similitudine transformari sicut amatorum dicimus cor unum et animam unam quod utique concedimus.” Gerson, Ibid.

50. “Dixerunt enim quod anima sic unitur deo et in ipsum transformatur quemadmodum, si gutta aque mittatur in dolium fontis vini. Illa namque gutta tune perdit esse proprium, convertiturque totaliter in alienum velut etiam si cibus per nutritionem convertatur in cibatum… Rnrsus [propter] eandem rationem similitudo transubstantiationis que fit in benedicto sacramento non satis est idonea ad explicandum transformationis in deum amatum.” Cons. 41 P; III, 394f. André Combes discusses a parallel passage in the letter of the Parisian Chancellor to Bartholomew (“Addit quod perditur anima contemplantis in esse tali divino abyssali ita ut reperibilis non sit ab aliqua creatura.” Epistola I ad Bartholomaeum; in Comhes, , Essai… II, 108ff.Google Scholar) and concludes that Gerson in his attack on Ruysbroeck has especially in mind Jean Conrtecuisse [Brevicoxa], a disciple of John of Ripa. Op. cit., 229. Gerson's aside “amplius non ignoro fuisse et esse quosdam ex theologis disputantes satis curiose si posset de absoluta potentia anima rationalis cognoscere et beatificari formaliter per divinam essentiam absque medio alio” (Ibid., 214) can be thus interpreted. Gerson's main purpose (this attack was only amplius), however, is to combat a type of mysticism which he knew to be widely spread, especially in the Low Countries and the Rhine Valley.

51. “Sane tota vel praecipua causa difficultatis ad intelligentiam scholasticam in hac parte videtur esse propter omnimodam finiti ad infinitum, creaturae scilicit ad creatorem improportionem…” Super Cantica Canticorum IV; IV, 54.Google Scholar

52. “Sane tota vel praecipua cansa difficultatis ad intelligentiam scholasticam in hac parte videtur esse propter omnimodam finiti ad infinitum, creaturae scilicet ad creatorem improportionem et aequivocationem, qualem elucidare volentes diversi doctores diversos sibi terminos invenerunt.” Ibid. Cf. my “Some Notes on the Theology of Nominalism,” in HTR 53 (1960), 47ff.Google Scholar

53. Vansteenberghen, E., “Autour de la ‘Docte Ignorance.’ Une controverse sur la théologie mystique an XV siècle,” in BB XIV (1915), 2–4Google Scholar in which the Tractatus cuiusdam carthusiensis de mystica theologia is published: “Ex hac elici potest quod venerandus doctor in hac dumtaxat materia fuit unus en illis, de quibus scribit apostolus, semper discentes et numquam ad scientiam veritatis pervenientes.” Op. cit., 165.

54. “Hic est nunc punctus difficultatis et mysterium absconditum quod nemo novit per experientiam nisi qui accipit.” De Cons. theol. IV; I, 178.Google Scholar“Hoc antem est manna absconditum et nomen novum in calculo scriptum, quod nemo novit nisi qui acceperit.” De Probatione Spirituum, Cons. 1; I, 38Google Scholar. See for the contrary opinion Dresz, op. cit., 123 f. and Connolly, op. cit., 271.

55. “Hinc pervenit ex dispensatione misericordie dei quod ab electis suis sepe declinat ipse sed non in via nec in finem. Abyssum vero iudiciorum eius quis investigabitur.” De mystica theol. prac. Cons. 6; III, 408Google Scholar. The following sigla refer to the quoted editions of the works of Biel, Gabriel: Sent. = Epithoma pariter et collectorium circa quattuor sententiarum libros. Tübingen1501.Google ScholarLect. = Sacri canonis misse expositio resolutissima. Basel 1510.Google ScholarS.C.E. = Sacrosancti canonis misse expositio… in epitomen contracta. Autwerpen 1556Google Scholar. S. I = Sermones dominicales de tempore. Hagenau 1510.Google ScholarS. II = Sermones de festivitatibus christi. Hagenau 1510.Google ScholarS. III = Sermones de festivitatibus gloriose Virginia marie. Hagenau 1510.Google ScholarS. IV = Sermones de sanctis. Basel 1519.Google Scholar

56. “Notandum quod hierarchia dicitur a ‘gera’ quod est sacer, et ‘arehia’ quod est principatus, quasi sacer principatus.” Biel, II Sent. d 9. q 1. art. 1. nota 1. (A.) “Vel clarius et aliter accipitur hec distinctio (hierarchie create) secundum tres status et officia qui sunt: status comtemplativorum, prelatorum et activorum” Ibid. C. Cf. S IV. 32 I. For medieval use of Dionysian terminology cf. Ruello, F. “Etude du terme ‘fagotodotis’ dans quelques commentaires mediévaux des Noms Divins,” in RTAM 24 (1957), 225ffGoogle Scholar; 25 (1958), 5ff; Combes, André, Jean Gerson commentateur Dionysien, Paris 1940, esp. 180ff.Google Scholar

57. “Scimus quoniam in magna domo Dei multa sunt vasa diversis usibus apta. Et in corpore ecciesie mistico diversa suit membra, omnia autem membra non eundem actum habent sed pro perfectione corporis huius facti sunt necessarii pedes quo ad suum officium quam oculorum vel manuum.” De communi Vita clericorum, Koninklÿke Bibliotheek in Den Haag, Ms. 75 G. 58, fol 15ff; ed. Landeen, W. M., Research Studies—Washington State University 28 (1960), 79ff, 91Google Scholar; Id. “Gabriel Bid and the Brethren of the Common Life in Germany,” in Church History XX (1951Google Scholar), 23ff. On pp. 25ff. Landeen reports the general content of this interesting treatise but does not include the more salient points. It should be noted that its theme and structure are the same as S IV. 11.

58. “Beati qui perfecte et totaliter deum diligunt non faciunt opus consilii sed magis praecepti quoniam maxime obligantur perfecte deum diligere. Ex quo apparet ultra, quod illud quoci cadit sub praecepto potest diversimode impleri absque culpa vel transgressione. Aliter enim diligunt deum viatores aliter comprehensores; aliter perfecti viri, aliter incipientes et aliter proficientes. Et tamen minus peccant imperfecti Si non aeque deum diligant velut perfecti iam in chanitate firmati et radicati; nec imputatur viatonibus ad culpam si non eo amore unitivo deo haereant quo et ipsi beati….” De consiliis evangelicis et de statu perfectionis; Opera, II, 612.Google Scholar This impatience appears again in the Tractatus de Perfectione Cordis, III, 439,Google Scholar to which Gerson refers in one of the “Consultations” recently published by Glorieux, P.: “… de perfectione statuum contencio qualiter fit a non nullis, sapit fernientum pharisaicum.”; “L'activité littéraire de Gerson à Lyon, Correspondance inédite avec la Grande-Charteuse,” in RTAM 18 (1951), 257.Google Scholar

59. “Omnis existens in gratia gratum faciente est in statu perfectionis reigionis christiane” S IV. 30 K.Google Scholar

60. “Et licet vita contemplativa simpliciter sit melior et nobilior, vita activa, videntur tamen se habere sepenumero ut excedens et excessum.” S IV. 7 C.Google Scholar“…contemplativa est deo familior et purior, tametsi alia sit sepenumero intensior et fructuosior.” S IV. 7 B.Google Scholar

61. “…qui ex hoc se putant bone voluntatis quia singulanibus quibusdam observantiis puta orationibus, ieiuniis, celebritatibus ceterisque spiritualibus excercitiis intendunt etiam laboniose multum.” S II. 5 F.Google Scholar

62. “Circumit iste Satan terram et perambulat eam, ut circumstantias omnium consideret … Itaque considerat dum circuit et observat volentes placere deo. Videt aptum aliquem ad reigionis ingressum, impellit ad oppositum sic illudens: Cur civilem vis deserere conversationem; quoniam homo natura civile animal est … Cur non potenis sub habitu seculari salutem tuam operani sub uno Abbato suo Christo? Gaudeas lege libertatis, quam dedit tibi deus et emit christus. Quid pukhnius, quid eligibilius libertate? Cur tot et tales vis subire observationes et vota super te inducere, qui non sufficis ad precepta servanda? Quid suit obligationes tot, nisi laquei totidem ad transgressores? Vide ne illaqueatus verbis oris tui cadas … Ecce quot quales in reigionibus defecerunt; quot ceciderunt …” Tractatus Octavus Super Magnificat; Opera IV, 364 A. ff.Google Scholar

63. “…nobis interim satis est ad oninem perfectionem stare et vivere in libertate legis christiane sub uno abbate christo Jhesu servando pro posse primo quidem regulam preceptorum suorum sine quibus non est salus … In his vera que non possumus satius non iudicamus non esse irretitos et obligatos voto vel professione strictioni … Sumus itaque contenti sorte nostra non alta sapientes sed humilibus consentientes et obedientes verbo apostolieo quo suadet, ut unusquisque in qua vocntione vocntus est, permanent.” De Communi vita, fol. 3; ed. cit., 81.

64. Ibid., fol. 2; ed. cit., 80.

65. For completeness' sake, we should add that Biel does not want to reject “nonsecular” monastic life: “Quotquot igitur sunt qui ad ardun scandere multaque et magna profiteri, vovere ac reddere domino deo suo possunt, laudamus eos…” Ibid., ed. cit., 81.

66. “De Devotio Moderna verspreidde zich… Temidden van deze groei ontstoud ook het begin van het observantisme…” Post, R. B., Kerkgeschiedenis van Nederland in do Middeleeuwen, Utrecht 1957, I, 355.Google Scholar“Hanr mannen (de congregatie van Windesheim) kwamen op voor een strikte observantie…” II, 97.Google Scholar

67. “… ex ista radice anntuente gratia dei pullulaverit fructus tam universalis reformationis non solum illius ordinis [Windosheim] verum etiam plurimorum aliorum ordinum…”; “multi ex hiis qui uoviter surrexerunt atque defunctis patribus successere etsi debita gratitudino non rosponderunt”; “(Assumimus etiam laborem manualem) … pro dovitando ocio quod malorum omnium seminarium est perniciosum.” “(mondicitati) … qui peccata populi comodunt debitores so orationum et suffragiorum constituunt.” “Cantica vero divina cantaro etiam manibus operantes facile possunt.” De Communi Vita Clericorum, fol. 13; fol. 17; ed cit., 88ff.

68. Navicula Penitentie, Augsburg 1511.Google ScholarDedicatio: “Adeoquo vitam secretiorem amavit ut secum tacite deliberans eremum ipsum nisi a Gabriele Buehel et Eggelingo prohibitus intrasset.” On what grounds Biel would have this authority is unclear. Eggelingus is Biel's predecessor as Cathedral preacher in Mains; Biel confesses that he owes much to him for his Expositio. Cf. Lectio 88 P. For Goiler's observantism cf. the careful study by Dacheux, L., Un réformateur catholique à la fin de XVe siècle; Jean Geiler de Kaysersberg, Paris 1876, esp. 180ff.Google Scholar

69. “Tertio ideo dominus duxit vitam laxiorum… ut per hoc doceret fideles suos quia non est standum in soils exterioribus, sed per en tendere debemus ad interiora.” S IV. 19 G.Google Scholar “Non enim alba aut nigra cuculla, non alta tonsura, nec ampla corona, sed conscientia pura et mentis munditia, abiectio voluntatis proprie et charitas perfecta monachum facit. Qui in mundo est, fugiat in claustrum; sed caveat ne ibi dormitet… vita enim confert meritum, locus non facit sanctum… nihil prodest esse observatorem in rebus minimis cum principalia negligantur.” Ibid., H. Cf. S IV. 30 K.Google Scholar

70. II Sent. d. 30. q2. art 2. concl, 4 G. “Lex enim membrorum sive fomes; temporata abstincntia mitigari potest sed in hac vita extingui non valet.” S II. 3 H.Google Scholar

71. “Sed gradus ille tertius qui solum perfectorum est habet deum nedum pro fine sicut duo prioros, sed etiam pro obiecto immediato, quia eorum opus est contemplari divinas perfectionos et ferventissimo amore soli deo inherere cum contemptu omnium temporalium et terrenomum. Nec tamen ita quiote possunt his inherere quin licet non a carne vel mundo omnino non temptentur vel modice….” III Sent. d 29. q 1. art. 3. dub. 2.

72. “In presenti quidem pane verbi, pane sacramentali, pane devotionis et in futuro pane beatifice visionis et fruitionis … ingredientes per fidem, egredientes a fide ad speciem, a credulitate ad contemplationem.” S I. 41 G. Cf. Lect. 64 O.

73. Berlière, U., L'ascése bénédictine des origines à la fin du XIIe siècle, Paris 1927Google Scholar; Vernet, F., La spiritualité mediévale, Paris 1929.Google Scholar For Dionysius see de Gandillac, M., Oeuvres complètes du Psuedo-Denys l'Aréopagite, Paris 1943, 295f.Google Scholar Most helpful and seemingly forgotten, the general study by Heerinck, J., Introductio in theologiam spiritualem, asceticam et mysticam, Roma 1931.Google Scholar

74. Biel's authorities at this point are Hugh of St. Victor and John Gerson. Cf. Hugh, , Eruditio Didascalia: “Quattuor sunt in quibus nunc exercetur vita ilnstoum ot quasi per quosdam gradus ad futuram perfectionem sublovamur, vidolicet loctio sive doctrina, meditatio oratio, operatio. Quinta deinde sequitur contemplatio.” PL 176, 797.Google Scholar Cf. Gerson, , Opera III, 1383.Google Scholar

75. III Sent. d 26. q 1. art 3. dub. 2 N. IV Sent.d 14.q 2. a 1.a 2, in fine: “… numquam sacramentum penetentie delet peccatum sine coutritione previa vel concomitanto.”

76. “Et hec aliquo modo est nobis in precepto, aliquo modo non. Non est in precepto quantum ad eius infusionem, nam solius dei est eius iufusio. Est autem in precepto quantum ad nostram preparatinem et eius conservationem: ad scl. faciendum quod in nobis est ut infundatur… Sed quomodo illam charitatem tam necessariam adquirere possumus? Respondetur breviter quod immediatissima ac ultimata dispositio ad eam est… actualiter diligere dominum ex toto cordo etc. Hac enim dilectione stante in anima statim imo simul cum ea infunditur charitas. Sed quomodo ad hanc dilectionem perveniemus? Responsio: tribus gradibus quos ponit Hugo in de scala paradisi. Hi sunt lectio, meditatio, oratio, quam sequitur contemplatio…” S I. 85 C/D.

77. “Affectus autem preparatur lectione et meditatione… Neque enim est affectio aliqua bona et laudabilis quam meditatio nun parent. Siquidem meditatio attenta divine potentie, sapieatie et boaitatis, proprie infirmitatis, ignorantie, malicie, affectus, pant timorem, ammirationem, amorem ut late ostendit Joannes Gerson de mystica theologia practica C. 8… Primum ergo est per prudentiam cognoscere petenda quam confert lectio. Secundum vigilans et studiosa cognitorum masticatio, que est meditatio excitans fervorem et affectum. Demum sequitur desideratorum bonorum petitio.” S I. 47 C. Gerson, op. cit., Cons. 8 0; III, 411f.

78. “Sola ergo causa tantorum benefieiorum intrinseca et essentialis bonitas est dei qui nullis nostris meritis prior dilexit nos… Huius autem amoris ex sola essentiali et intrinseca dei bonitate procedentis diligens meditatio excitat in nobis dilectionem amicicie qua eum propter seipsum (quia bonus est) diligimus, qua dilectione tanquam principalissima dispositione in nobis existente sine mora spiritus sanctus illabitur. Non enim potest hec dilectio stare sine spiritu sancto cum sit dispositio sufficiens et immediata.” S II. 36 FGoogle Scholar; cf. 29 H, 39 H; Lect. 77 T; S II. 18 I: “(dilectio dei)… qua deo bene propter seipsum volumus atque in eius perfectione gaudemus et nos sue voluntati conformare cupimus. Et hic amor dispositio proxima est ad gratiam gratum facientem et ea inexistente ac cooperante meritoria est vite eterne.” Cf. IV. Sent. d 14. q 1. art 2. concl 5 U.

79. “Nulla enim opera tanquam bona ad meritum imputantur que non ex radice charitatis procedunt. Hec sola edificium nostrum exornat ut christus inhabitare dignetur.” S II. 50 G.

80. “His tribus in christo fundamento unico et solidissimo vivimus, movemur et sumus. Vivimus per fidem, sicut scriptum est ‘justus ex fide vivit’ Hab. 2 [4]. Movemur in eo per spem que sursum sunt desiderantes per quam futuram civitatem inquirimus non habentes hic mansionem. Heb. XIII [14]. Sumus in eo per unientem charitatem… His nisi firmiter adhereamus frustra de bentudine speramus. Ille enim tres necessarie sunt ad salutem… Omnis qui habet spem hanc in christo sanctificatus est sieut et ille sanctus est. Nemo autem nisi sanctus beatitudinem sortietur quia nihil inquinatum intrabit in illam…” Ibid. G/H.

81. “Converti ad deum — appropinquari deo — aperiri illi est facere quod in se est. Convertitur autem deus ad hominem. Appropinquat ei et intrat habitando in eo et cenando cum illo, per gratiam quam infundit.” II Sent. d. 27. q 1. art. 2. concl. 4 K.

82. “Et quamvis solum verbum natum sit in carne, non pater, non spiritus sanctus, non tamen solum verbum naseitur in mente quia non solus inhabitat sed et pater et spiritus sanctus.” S II. 12 B.

83. “Est ergo spiritualis nativitas unio verbi cum natura intellectuali per gratiam gratum facientem… Nam per eandem gratiam sive charitatem quam nobis infundendo in nos descendit, sibique unit, etiam elevamur in eum charitative, voluntati sue consentiendo ac per hoc spiritualiter enum gignimus ac nobis unimus.” Ibid. Usually, however, the christus extra nos is emphasized: “Quid enim aliud fundamentum posset esse christiano quam christus, cui servire, quem imitari, ad cuius regnum necesse est aspirare …” S II. 50 E.

84. II Sent. d 27. q 1. art. 2. concl. 4 K.

85. “Oratio est ascensus mentis in deum per pium et humilem affectum. Affectus autem preparatur lectione et meditatione…” S I. 47 C.

86. “Tractatus de cohibendis cogitationibus et de modo constituendarum meditationum, scala meditationis vocatur,” in M. Wesseli Opera, Groningae 1614, fol. 194–408.Google Scholar

87. De spiritualibus ascensionibus, ed. H. Mahien, Brugge 1941 2Google Scholar. Albert's, W. Jappe helpful article “Zur Historiographie der Devotio Moderna und ihren Erforschung” in Westfälishe Forschungen 11 (1958), 51–67,Google Scholar is indicative of the lack of research in the later developments of the Devotio Moderna. It would require a special study to establish in detail to what extent Biel is dependent on the piety of the Devotio Moderna. Insofar as this movement is far from monolithic, it would be especially revealing to compare Biel with two other leading contemporaries, Wessel Gansfort and Staupitz. The totally different understanding of the relation of contrition and gratia gratum faciens, — for both Wessel and Staupitz the temporal aspect of the gratia predestinationis,—would be a major point of differentiation; cf. van Rhyn, Maarten, Wessel Gansfort, 's Gravenhage 1917, 238CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wolf, Ernst, Staupitz and Luther, Leipzig 1927, n. 5., 92ff.Google Scholar The mystical significance of the act of commemoration in the Lord's Supper emphasized especially by the Sacramentarians and Spiritualists has not yet been acknowledged. See IV Sent. d 14. q 2. art. 1. nota in fine.

88. “… ut ascendamus virtutum scalem erigamus, cuius etsi multi sunt gradus secundum numerum virtutum, unum tamen et principalem gradum ascendamus qui sufficit nos in altum sustollere, ipse est humilitas ceterarum fundamentum virtutum.” S I. 48 E.

89. “Et revera facile est humiliari quoniam universa prebent occasionem humilitatis recte consideranti… Nullum ergo nobis relinquitur excusationis velamen.” S I. 48 G.

90. I Sent. d 17. q 1. art. 2. concl. 1; Occam, Ibid., q 2. B. Scotus, Rep. Ibid. q 2. n 5.

91. Ibid. coacl 2. Occam, Ibid. q 3. B. Scotus, Ox. ibid. q 3. n. 19.

92. “Omnis actus meritorius necessario presupponit charitatem creatam secundum legem dei ordinatam.” I Sent. d 17. q 3. art. 2. concl. 1.

93. “Infundit enim spiritus sanctus dona sua eis quos ad se convertit. Certus sum quod neque mors neque vita… poterit nos seperare a charitate dei que est in christo iesu domino nostro: et hec necessanio est omni homini ad salutem.” S. I. 85 C.

94. Dettloff, Werner, Die Lehre von der Acceptatio Divina bei Johannes Duns Scotus, mit besondere Berüchitigung der Rechtfertiguagslchre, Werl 1954, esp. 204 ff.Google Scholar

95. Werner, Karl, Johannes Duns Scotus, Wien 1881, 424Google Scholar; Seeberg, Reinhold, Die Theologie Joh. Duns Scotus, Leipzig 1900, 312.Google Scholar

96. Feckes, Carl, Die Rechtfertigungslchre des Gabriel Biel, Munster 1925, 80 f.Google Scholar Otto Scheel, op. cit., II3–4, 174 ff.

97. II Sent. d 31. q 1. concl. 1, 3.

98. This distinction makes it possible to reinterpret and save Lombard's thesis that we love God and the neighbor through the Holy Spirit—rejected by the post-Lombardian scholastic tradition: “Nec vult magister negare quin preter illud donum quod est spiritus sanctus etiam aliud donum creatum donetur quod sit habitus inclinans ad diligendum.” I Sent. d 17. q 3. art. 2. concl. 2. Occam, ibid.B; both dependent upon Scotus, Ord. I. d 17. q 3; Lombard I Sent. d 17. c 1. Cf. further Dettloff, op. cit., 14 f, 154 f. “… summus creator… dignatur nostram animam sibi templum dedicare in quo nedum in donis sed personaliter vult habitare…” S II. 53 B.

99. “Dilectio habitualis est aliquod immanens seu favor quidam manens cessante actu voluntatis et cognitionis natum inclinare ad actus dilectionis…” S I. 85 C. As far as I can see this is a remarkable use of the word “favor.” Peter of Palude uses the word “fautor” indeed in a forensic sense: “Tertia fautoria est facti si quis alimoniam mittat vel liberet … Dicuntur credentes qui habent fidem eorum implicitam, non explicitam: reputantes eos bonos et habere bonam fidem.” The word can also be applied to the defense by a lawyer of someone against the accusation of heresy by inquisitioners. This may explain the incorporation of the word in the Protestant dogmatic vocabulary. Palude, , IV Sent. d 18. q 3.Google Scholar Cf. Altenstaig, Jacobus, Vocabularius Theologie, Hagenau 1517,Google Scholars.v.

100. “Non omnes qui intra ecclesiam fide et numero salutem finaliter consequentur: nam ad vite consecutionem non sufficit christo incorporari fide nisi etiam ei inhereamus gratia, opere et amore.” S II. 48 F.

101. S I. 48 C-F; S I. 66 F; S I. 79 H in fine.

102. “… charitas augmentabilis est in viatore per actus ex gratia procedentes meritorie.” I Sent. d 17. q 4. prop. 9.

103. “Alius est adventus quo nedum inhabitando animam sanctificat, sed specialiter visitat, perticit ac magnitudine sue dilectionis replet. Atque ipsum quem sic visitat in se transformat, ut secum unus fiat spiritus, non essentia sed voluntatis conformitate. Quam consolationis dulcedinem exprimere nemo potest, nec intelligere inexpertus… Ad sic recipiendum spiritum sanctum non sufficit renunciare illicitis mundi… sed etiam licitis, quantam status mortalitatis admittit.” S I. 49 D. Cf. S IV. 40 L.

104. “Perfecti primo habent omnia terrena despicere… (quantam hec vita permittit).” S IV. 32 L.

105. “Talis enim non indiget voce exteriore ad devotionem excitandum seu affectum inflammandum” Lect. 62 D.Google Scholar

106. “In primo, perfectus homo subtrahit se creature, conservat se deo, perdit sese in deo in quo omnia possidet. In secundo se perdit in sua cognitione. In tertio in sua affectione… Sic ergo per amorem transformatur in deum… In his nos exercentes similes erimus angelis dei in resurrectione.” S IV. 32 L.

107. “Ita anima digne accedens … convertitur in corpus christi dum ei per intimam et gratiosam unionem incorporatur… Sic per hanc conversionem anima manet in christo et vivit vita gratie qui est per christum… anima mutatur in christum cum iam fit celestis et ordinatur per hunc cibum in vitam eternam.” S II. 45 M. Cf. Lect. 36 N. This part of S II. 45 carries the title “Mystificatio predictorum.”

108. “Undo fit ut non solum participatione huius sacramenti dicatur homo christiferus quasi christum ferens vel haben sed divinum imo deus, non per essentiam sed participatione… Cum enim sic per hominem christum anima deo per affectum coniungitur… ita ut verius sit in deo quem amat quam in corpore quod animat… Venus inquam non essentie permutatione.” S II. 45 O. Cf. Ruysbroeck, , De Ornatu III, 4.Google Scholar

109. “… prudenter vero qui sibi conscii frequenter accedunt quia quo dicta sunt et si conferat quandoque propter opus oporantis addit tamen multum virtute opens operati quod non consequuntur qui se subtrahunt etiam ex devotione.” Ibid., U.

110. “… paratus nihilominus ea carere bono animo si non detur, recogitans assidue quia non in sentimento huius dulcedinis sed in charitate est regnum dei.” Lect. 86 S.

111. “Corpus Christi verum comeditur sacramentaliter i.e. sub specie panis. Corpus Christi mysticum comoditur spintualiter in fide cordis…” Lect. 36 G.

112. “… In sumptione dum mens in deum transformatur remanet quidem essentia mentis que est anima sed accidentia nova succedunt… dici potest quod sunt dii sub humana specie transformati.” Lect. 86 A.

113. “Sepe enim contingit quod hi qui maiorem habent dei dilectionem intensive et extensive minus sentiunt so affici ad deum et minus experiuntur dulcorem dulcedinis ad deum quam alii qui sunt minonis in dilectione … ad quod cooperantur hominis naturalia sic vel sic qualificata. Hinc aliqui mox flent…” S IV. 7 C.