Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T23:50:47.409Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Fasting, Piety, and Political Anxiety among French Reformed Protestants

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 July 2009

Raymond A. Mentzer
Raymond A. Mentzer
Affiliation:
Raymond A. Mentzer holds the Daniel J. Krumm Family Chair in Reformation Studies at the University of Iowa.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Fasting has an ancient and revered place in the many religious traditions that human communities have fostered throughout history and across the globe. In India, to take a modern example, Hindu women commonly carry out ritual fasts or vrats. Fasting, particularly in its collective forms, is also frequent and widespread among western groups that scholars have sometimes described as Abrahamic religions. Muslims annually observe Ramadan, a month of fasting, prayer, and celebration. Jews customarily fast, taking no food or drink from sunup to sundown, several days each year and, most notably, on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. For medieval Christians, preparation for the holy feasts of Christmas and Easter meant substantial periods of religious preparation, the well-known Advent and Lenten periods complete with fasting and abstinence from certain foods. In contemporary Christian circles, fasting may be less widely practiced, yet it retains an important place among Roman Catholics and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints, to cite but two better-known cases. In short, the utilization of food for purposes of religious devotion and piety, whether through fasting or feasting, has been a long-standing custom within and without western religious culture.

Type
Articles
Information
Church History , Volume 76 , Issue 2 , June 2007 , pp. 330 - 362
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Church History 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. See Pearson, Anne Mackenzie, “Because It Gives Me Peace of Mind”: Ritual Fasts in the Religious Lives of Hindu Women (Albany: SUNY Press, 1986)Google Scholar.

2. Real and symbolic meals such as Seder and the Eucharist are but two highly significant instances of eating as a religious occasion in western Judeo-Christian tradition. See Feeley-Harnik, Gillian, The Lord's Table: The Meaning of Food in Early Judaism and Christianity (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3. The present essay confines itself to an examination of fasting among Reformed Protestants in France and, to a lesser extent, other areas in Western Europe where Calvin's views were a major inspiration. Analysis does not extend to the Zwinglian part of the Reformed tradition.

4. Collinson, Patrick, The Religion of Protestants: The Church in English Society, 1559–1625 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 260Google Scholar; Davies, Horton, Worship and Theology in England, 3 vols. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1996), 1, pt. 1:260, 268, 288–89, 441; pt. 2:126–27, 238, 247–49Google Scholar; Bozeman, Theodore Dwight, The Precisionist Strain: Disciplinary Religion and Antinomian Backlash in Puritanism to 1638 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 118.Google Scholar

5. Todd, Margo, The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002), 93–94, 98Google Scholar; Schmidt, Leigh Eric, Holy Fairs: Scotland and the Making of American Revivalism, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2001), 19, 28.Google Scholar

6. de Félice, Paul, Les protestants d'autrefois: Vie intérieure des églises. Moeurs et usages: Les temples. Les services religieux: Les actes pastoraux, 2nd ed. (Paris: Fischbacher, 1897), 156Google Scholar; Krumenacker, Yves, “Jeûne et image de Dieu: les synodes protestants du Désert,” Bulletin de la Société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme Français (hereafter BSHPF) 140:2 (1994): 209–17.Google Scholar

7. Feeley-Harnick, , The Lord's Table, 89–91Google Scholar; Grimm, Veronika E., From Feasting to Fasting, the Evolution of a Sin: Attitudes to Food in Late Antiquity (London: Routledge, 1996), 20–24, and 32–33.Google Scholar

8. Brown, Peter, The Body and Society: Men, Women and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 220–25Google Scholar; Shaw, Teresa M., The Burden of the Flesh: Fasting and Sexuality in Early Christianity (Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress, 1998), 79–128.Google Scholar

9. Henisch, Bridget Ann, Fast and Feast: Food in Medieval Society (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1976), 28–58.Google Scholar

10. Bynum, Carolyn W., Holy Feast and Holy Famine: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987)Google Scholar.

11. Roper, Lyndal, The Holy Household: Women and Morals in Reformation Augsburg (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).Google Scholar

12. Garrisson, Janine, Protestants du Midi, 1559–1598 (Toulouse: Privat, 1980), 252–55, and 291–316Google Scholar. For similar developments in Lutheranism and Protestantism generally, see Karant-Nunn, Susan C., The Reformation of Ritual: An Interpretation of Early Modern Germany (London: Routledge, 1997), 39–42Google Scholar; and Roper, Lyndal, “Drinking, Whoring and Gorging: Brutish Indiscipline and the Formation of Protestant Identity,” in Oedipus and the Devil: Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early Modern Europe (London: Routledge, 1994), 145–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

13. Douglas, Mary, Natural Symbols: Explorations in Cosmology, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1996), 79.Google Scholar

14. Mentzer, Raymond A., “Les débats sur les banes dans les Églises réformées de France,” BSHPF 152:3 (2006): 393–406.Google Scholar

15. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Church of Castres reminded men to remove their hats when singing the psalms; women were not to fan themselves in hot weather; and during prayer everyone was to sit, not kneel: Tarn, I 1, p. 166, Archives Départementales (hereafter AD), Albi.

16. Luther, Martin, The Freedom of the Christian, in Luther's Works, 55 vols., ed. Jaroslav, Pelikan and Lehmann, Helmut T. (Saint Louis, Mo.: Concordia, 1955–1986), 31:372Google Scholar. I am grateful to Professor Forrest Clingerman of Ohio Northern University for calling my attention to these references from Luther and Zwingli.

17. Luther's Works, 44:184.

18. Noll, Mark A., ed., Confessions and Catechisms of the Reformation (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1991), 108.Google Scholar

19. Zwingli, Ulrich, “Concerning Choice and Liberty Respecting Food,” in Early Writings, ed. Jackson, Samuel M (1912; reprint Durham, N.C.: Labyrinth, 1987), 110.Google Scholar

20. Calvin, John, Commentarius in harmonium evangelicam, in Ioannis Calvini Opera quae supersunt omnia, 59 vols., ed. Baum, G., Cunitz, E., and Reuss, E. (Brunswick: G. A. Schwetschke, 1863–1900), 45Google Scholar: col. 95–96, 128–30, 203–4; Calvin, John, Commentary on a Harmony of the Evangelists, Matthew, Mark and Luke, trans. Pringle, William (Edinburgh, 1843; reprint Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1996), 1:152–53, 208–10, 330–31.Google Scholar

21. Calvin, John, Commentarii in Isaiam prophetam, in Calvini Opera, 37Google Scholar: col. 325–29; Calvin, John, Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Isaiah, trans. Pringle, William (Edinburgh, 1843; reprint Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1996), 4:227–32.Google Scholar

22. The greater part of this discussion was added to the Institutes in 1543 several years after Calvin's return from Strasbourg to Geneva, and was very much within the context of setting up the church in Geneva.

23. Calvin, Inst. 4.12.16; Calvin, John, Institution de la religion chrétienne, 4.10.29, 4.12.14, 17, and 19Google Scholar, in Calvini Opera, 4: col. 835–36; Calvin, John, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 2 vols., ed. McNeill, John T., trans. Battles, Ford Lewis (Philadelphia, Pa.: Westminster, 1960), 2:1242.Google Scholar

24. Calvin, Inst. 3.3.17; Calvini Opera, 4: col. 89–90; Calvin, , Institutes, ed. McNeill, 1:611.Google Scholar

25. Félice, , Les protestants d'autrefois, 158.Google Scholar

26. Le Noir, Philippe, de Crevain, sieur, Histoire ecclésiastique de Bretagne, depuis la Réformation jusqu'à l'Édit de Nantes, ed. Benjamin, Vaurigaud (Paris: Grassart, 1851), 277.Google Scholar

27. Calvin, Inst. 4.10.29, 4.12.14, 4.12.17–19; Calvini Opera, 4: col. 792–93, 834–35, 836–37, and 838–39; Calvin, , Institutes, ed. McNeil, 2:1206–7, 1241, 1243–46.Google Scholar

28. Calvin, Inst. 4.12.17, and 19; 4.13.7; Calvini Opera, 4: col. 836–37, 838–39, and 859; Calvin, , Institutes, ed. McNeill, 2:1243–46, 1260–61.Google Scholar

29. Thomson, George, La desroute de la chasse du loup cervier ou, refutation du traicté du jeusne, fait par maistre René le Corvaisier, soi disant theologien de la faculté de Paris (La Rochelle: Les Heritiers de Hierosme Haultin, 1612), 12, and 87.Google Scholar

30. Daillé, Jean, Sermon de Jean Daillé sur l'Apocalypse, chap. II, vers. 5, prononcé a Charenton le vendredy 19 d'avril 1658, jour de jeusne (Paris: Samuel Perier, 1658), 4–7Google Scholar; Drelincourt, Charles, Exhortation au jusne el à la repentance avec des prieres pour demander à Dieu la sanctification du jusne, et la remission des pechez (Charenton: Samuel Perier, 1680), 6–7Google Scholar. In eighteenth-century New England, Jonathan Edwards and others noted a connection between fasting, prayer, and ecstatic religious experience: Taves, Ann, Fits, Trances, and Visions: Experiencing Religion and Explaining Experience from Wesley to James (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999), 67, and 408, n. 128.Google Scholar

31. Calvin, Inst. 4.12.14; Calvini Opera, 4: col. 834–35; Calvin, , Institutes, ed. McNeill, 2:1241.Google Scholar

32. Calvin, Inst. 4.3.12, 4.12.15; Calvini Opera, 4: col. 627, and 835; Calvin, , Institutes, ed. McNeill, 2:1064, 1242.Google Scholar

33. Calvin, Inst. 4.12.14; Calvini Opera, 4: col. 834–35; Calvin, , Institutes, ed. McNeill, 2:1241.Google Scholar

34. Calvin, Inst. 4.12.15, 4.12.17–18; Calvini Opera, 4: col. 835, and 836–38; Calvin, Institutes, ed. McNeill, 2:1242–44.

35. Calvin, Inst. 3.4.11; Calvini Opera, 4: col. 117–18; Calvin, , Institutes, ed. McNeill, 1:635.Google Scholar

36. Douglas, Mary, Natural Symbols, 71.Google Scholar

37. Mellor, Philip A. and Shilling, Chris, Re-forming the Body: Religion, Community and Modernity (London: Sage, 1997), 9–14, 22–24, 35–62, and 98–103Google Scholar. The best recent discussion of early modern theological views of the Eucharist and understandings of the body is Wandel, Lee Palmer, The Eucharist in the Reformation: Incarnation and Liturgy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

38. Isaac Casaubon, Ephémérides, cited in Lehr, Henri, “Les deux temples de l'Église Réformée de Paris sous l'Édit de Nantes,” BSHPF 2:3 (1853): 265.Google Scholar

39. Ms fr 8666, fols. 49, 114, 128v, 140, 179, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.

40. The Church of Scotland, to borrow a Reformed example from the British Isles, frequently held fasts on Sundays: Todd, , The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland, 28, 36, 145, 160, and 174.Google Scholar

41. “Une page des Ephémérides de Casaubon,” BSHPF 4:4 (1856): 515–16Google Scholar. The event occurred on April 18, 1599, the Sunday following Easter. French Reformed churches celebrated the Lord's Supper four times each year—Easter, Pentecost, early September, and Christmas—and usually on two successive Sundays in order to accommodate the entire congregation in a service that would not be unduly long.

42. Yves Guéneau, Protestants du centre, 1598–1685 (ancienne province synodale d' Orleanais Berry): Approches d'une minorité (Thèse de doctorat, Université François Rabelais de Tours, 1982), 309; “Extraits du premier registre consistorial de Rochechouart, 1596–1635,” in Documents historiques bas-latins, provençaux et français concernant principalement la Marche et le Limousin, 2 vols., ed. Alfred Leroux, Emile Molinier, and Antoine Thomas (Limoges: Ducourtieux, 1883–1885), 2:111.Google Scholar

43. Amyraut, Moïse, Apologie pour ceux de la religion (Paris: Samuel Petit, 1648), 297.Google Scholar

44. Méjan, François, Discipline de I' Église réformée de France annotee et précéedée d'une introduction historique (Paris: Editions ‘Je Sers,’ 1947), 304.Google Scholar

45. Ibid. 259; Aymon, Jean, Tous les synodes nationaux des Églises réformées de France, 2 vols. (The Hague: Charles Delo, 1710), 1:79, 163Google Scholar; Quick, John, Synodicon in Gallia Reformata or the Acts, Decisions, Decrees, and Canons of those Famous National Councils of the Reformed Churches in France, 2 vols. (London: T. Parkhurst and J. Robinson, 1692), 1:73, 148.Google Scholar

46. Thomson, , La deswute de la chasse, 12.Google Scholar

47. Ms A 1, fols. 35–35v, 41, Musée du Protestantisme Dauphinois, Le Poët-Laval; Ms 654, 180–81, Bibliothèque de la Société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme Français (hereafter BPF), Paris.

48. Calvini Opera, 31: col. 663–73. Calvin also commented or, more accurately, lectured on Joel in the Praelectiones in duodecium prophetas minores, in Calvini Opera, 42: col. 515–600.Google Scholar

49. Ms 654, 146–48, BPF.

50. Casaubon, Ephémerides, made clear that “Nous nous sommes abstenus de manger et de boire,” cited in Lehr, , “Les deux temples de l'Église Réformée de Paris,” BSHPF 2:3: 265–66.Google Scholar

51. Tarn, I 1, 37, AD; Benoît, Daniel, “Pierre de Vernejoul, procureur au Parlement de Guienne et son journal inédit (1673–1691),” BSHPF 53:4 (1904): 410Google Scholar; Félice, , Les protestants d'autrefois, 165Google Scholar; Papier pour le Consistoire de Barbezieux (Angoulême: Association Généalogique de la Charente, 1990), 10.Google Scholar

52. Tarn, B 1280, Délibérations du consistoire de Viane, le 22 novembre 1670, AD.

53. Chevalier, Françhise, Prêcher sous I'Édit de Nantes: La prédication réformée au XVIIe siècle en France (Geneva: Labor et Fides, 1994), 27–29.Google Scholar

54. de L'Estoile, Pierre, Mémoires-]ournaux de Pierre de L'Estoile, 12 vols., ed. Brunet, Champollion and others (Paris: Alphonse Lemerre, 1875–1896), 10:74Google Scholar.

55. Lehr, , “Les deux temples de l'Église Réformée de Paris,” BSHPF 2:3 (1853): 265–66; 3:4 (1854): 458, 471, 553Google Scholar. Fasts celebrated at Sedan, an independent principality with a francophone if not officially French Reformed church, typically had three lengthy sermons: Ardennes, 31 J 4, fols. 82v, 88, 93, 102v, 168, 192, 197, 227, 235v, Archives Départementales des Ardennes, Chareville-Mezières. For a detailed discussion of the well-known fast at Charenton in April 1628, see Félice, , Les protestants d'autrefois, 168–72Google Scholar. Although there are numerous descriptions of French Reformed fasts by contemporaries, the Reformed Churches of France do not seem to have published an official liturgical handbook for their celebration.

56. “Ordre qui a esté donné au lecteur pour ce qui devoit estre leu et chanté le jour de Jûne celebré à Charenton le 19 d'avril 1658,” in Acte pour le jusne celebré à Charenton le vendredy 19 d'avril 1658 (Paris: Anthoine Cellier, 1658), 9–15Google Scholar; de Villers, Philippe, Journal d'un voyage à Paris en 1657–1658, ed. Faugère, A. P. (Paris: Benjamin Duprat, 1862), 459.Google Scholar

57. Daillé, Sermon de jean Daillé sur l'Apocalypse, especially 39–40.

58. Gaches, Raymond, Sermon sur Jeremie, chapitre III, vers. 22, prononcé à Charenton le vendredy 19 d'avril 1658, jour de jeusne (Paris: Samuel Perier, 1658), especially 20–28, and 41.Google Scholar

59. Drelincourt, Charles, La repentance de l'enfant prodigue ou sermon sur le XV de Saint Luc, depuis le verset 11 jusques au 24, prononcé à Charenton le vendredy 19 avril, jour de la celebration de Jûne (Paris: Anthoine Cellier, 1658), especially 22–29.Google Scholar

60. “Ordre qui a esté donné au lecteur,” in Acte pour le jusne celebré à Charenton le vendredy 19 d'avril 1658, 9–15Google Scholar; de Félice, Paul, “Les services religieux à Charenton,” BSHPF 55:4 (1906): 360Google Scholar. Félice, , Les protestants d'autrefois, 167–71.Google Scholar

61. Drelincourt, Charles, Sermon pour le jusne celebré à Charenton pour la prosperité des armes du Roy, le jeudy 21 aoust 1636 (Rouen: Claude Le Villain et Jacques Cailloüe, 1636), especially 66.Google Scholar

62. Le Faucheur, Michel, Exhortation à repentance, faite en l'Eglise de Montpellier, pour la sanctification du jeusne, celebré par les Eglises de France, le dixiesme d'octobre 1618 (Montpellier: Jean Gilet, 1618), 3, 39–40, 84–86, 92, 101, 109.Google Scholar

63. Ibid., 88–89.

64. Le Faucheur, Michel, Sermon prononcé le jour du jeusne celebré à Charenton le jeudy 4 may 1645 sur le 66 chap. d'Esaïe v. 2 (Paris: Samuel Petit, 1645).Google Scholar

65. Jansse, Lucas, Les larmes chrestienne, ou sermons faits en des jours de jeusne (Rouen: Nicolas Le Tourneur, 1669)Google Scholar; Adam, Antoine, Histoire de la littérature française au XVIIe siècle, 5 vols., vol. 2, L'époque de Pascal (Paris: Editions Mondiales, 1949–1956), 114–15Google Scholar. How many of Jansse's listeners would have recalled that Jezebel had occasion to “proclaim a fast” (1 Kings 21:9) as a subterfuge to obtain Naboth's vineyard?

66. Charles-Louis, Frossard, ed., Recueil de réglements extraits des actes des synodes provinciaux tenus dans la province du Bas-Languedoc de 1568 à 1623 (Paris: Grassart, 1885), 53.Google Scholar

67. Brousson, Claude, Lettre et opuscules de feu Mons. Brousson … avec un abregé de sa vie (Utrecht: Guillaume vande Water, 1701), 237–39.Google Scholar

68. The consistory of Montagnac, for example, noted general fasts declared for November 29,1601, and May 25, 1623. The provincial synod that assembled at Châtillon-sur-Loire announced a fast for early November 1657: Gers, 23015, 23 novembre 1601, 19 mai 1623, Archives Departementales du Gers, Auch.

69. Aymon, , Tous les synodes, 2:536, 541Google Scholar; Quick, , Synodicon in Gallia Reformata, 2:325–26, 329Google Scholar; Félice, , Les protestants d'autrefois, 159–60.Google Scholar

70. Quick, , Synodicon in Gallia Reformata, 1:146Google Scholar; Aymon, , Tous les synodes, 1:161.Google Scholar

71. Quick, , Synodicon in Gallia Reformata, 1:327Google Scholar; Aymon, , Tous les synodes, 1:375Google Scholar; A 1, fol. 35, Musée du Protestantisme Dauphinois; Lehr, , “Les deux temples de l'Église Réformée de Paris,” BSHPF 3:4 (1854): 458.Google Scholar

72. L'Estoile, Mémoires-Journaux, 10:56.

73. Papier pour le Consistoire de Barbezieux, 9.

74. Félice, , Les protestants d'autrefois, 158–59.Google Scholar

75. G. Baum, Ed. Cunitz, and Rodolphe, Reuss, ed., Histoire ecclésiastique des églises réformées au royaume de France, 3 vols. (Paris, 1883–1889; reprint Nieuwkoop: B. de Graaf, 1974), 1:120.Google Scholar

76. Sapin, Annik, L'Église Réformée de Sedan de ses origines jusqu'au rattachement de la principauté à la France (1562–1642) (Paris: Thèse de l'École des Chartes, 1974), 79–80Google Scholar. In the view of one pastor, Christians like ancient Jews fasted “quand il estoit question de la vocation de quelcun à une charge sacrée”: Thomson, , La desroute de la chasse, 12.Google Scholar

77. Kingdon, Robert M., Mentzer, Raymond A., and Reulos, Michel, “‘Disciplines’ réformées du XVIe siècle français: une découverte faite aux Etats-Unis,” BSHPF 130:1 (1984): 74.Google Scholar

78. Ms fr 8667, fols. 3, 54v, 76, Bibliothéque Nationale; Ms 1538/1, 114, BPF; Guèneau, , Protestants du centre, 308.Google Scholar

79. Noir, Le, Histoire ecclésiastique de Bretagne, 277.Google Scholar

80. Ms fr 8666, fol 49,179, Bibliothèque Nationale; Étienne Trocmé, “L'Éiglise Réformée de La Rochelle jusqu'en 1628,” BSHPF 98:3 (1952): 179–80.Google Scholar

81. Benoît, Daniel, Les origines de la Réforme à Montauban (Montauban: Capelle, 1910), 319Google Scholar; Ms 6563/3, fol. 94v, Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, Paris.

82. Faurin, Jean, Journal de Faurin sur les guerres de Castres, ed. Charles Pradel, in Pièces fugitives pour servir à I'Histoire de France, 2nd ed., ed. Ménard and D'Aubais, published by M. de La Pijardière (Monrpellier: Imprimerie des Chroniques de Languedoc, 1878; reprint Marseilles: Lafitte, 1981), 209Google Scholar. Gaches, Jacques, Mémoires sur les guerres de religion à Castres et dans le Languedoc (1555–1610)Google Scholar; and Suite des mémoires (1610–1612), ed. Charles Pradel (Paris, 1879–94; reprint Geneva: Slatkine, 1970), 302, 450.Google Scholar

83. Serr, Gaston, line église protestante au XVIe siècle, Montauban (Aix-en-Provence: La Pensée Universitaire, 1958), 90–92.Google Scholar

84. Gers, 23067, 25 mai 1623, AD.

85. Mours, Samuel, Le protestantisme en France au XVIIe siècle (1598–1685) (Paris: Librairie Protestante, 1967), 94.Google Scholar

86. Félice, , Les protestants d'autrefois, 164–65Google Scholar; Guéneau, , Protestants du centre, 309.Google Scholar

87. Pradel, Charles, “Le livre de raison de Jean de Bouffard-Madiane,” BSHPF 56:1 (1907): 48.Google Scholar

88. Allix, Pierre, Les malheurs de l'impenitence, ou sermon sur les paroles du I chap, du livre des Proverbes aux vers. 24,25,26,27,28: Prononcé à Charenton le 28 decembre 1675, joûr dejeune (Charenton: Olivier de Varennes, 1676), 20.Google Scholar

89. Claude, Jean, Les fruits de la repentance ou sermon sur ces paroles de Salamon.… Proverb. 16, v. 6 et 7. Prononcé à Charenton le 3 avril 1676, jour de jeusne (Geneva: Samuel de Tournes, 1678).Google Scholar

90. Benoit, Éilie, Histoire de I'Édit de Nantes, 3 vols. (Delft: Adrien Beman, 1693–1695), 1:366–68.Google Scholar

91. Trois sermons prononcez en deux jours de junes, et le troisieme dans une église étrangere, le lendemain d'un jusne (1681?). These three sermons, apparently published and distributed at some risk, give no author, publisher, or place and date of publication.

92. Rou, Jean, Mémoires inédits et opuscules de Jean Rou, 2 vols. (Paris: Société de l'Histoire de Protestantisme Français, 1857), 1:81–83.Google Scholar

93. Etienne Mazyck, “A Litteral Translation taken from my Grand father Stephen Mazyck's Registry kept and wrote by himself in an old French Bible by me his Grand Son Peter Hamon in the year 1786,” The Huguenot Society of South Carolina Library, ms collection, [2]. I am grateful to Bertrand Van Ruymbeke of the Université de Paris 8 for this reference. See his From Babylon to New Eden: The Huguenots and Their Migration to Colonial South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 97.Google Scholar

94. Fatio, Olivier, “Le jeûne genevois: réalité et mythe,” Bulletin de la Société d'histoire et d'archéologie de Genève 14 (1971): 391–404.Google Scholar

95. Owe, Boersma and Jelsma, A. J., ed., Unity in Multiformity: The Minutes of the Coetus of London, 1575 and the Consistory Minutes of the Italian Church of London, 1570–1591 (London: The Huguenot Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1997), 58, 60–61, 62, 64–66, 68, 78, 80–81, 85–89, 105–6, 108–10.Google Scholar

96. Collinson, Patrick, “Elizabethan and Jacobean Puritanism as Forms of Popular Religious Culture,” in The Culture of English Puritanism, 1560–1700, ed. Christopher, Durston and Jacqueline, Eales (London: Macmillan, 1996), 50–54Google Scholar; Kaufman, Peter Iver, “Fasting in England in the 1560s: ‘A Thing of Nought’?,” Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 94 (2003): 176–93.Google Scholar

97. Blair, Robert, The Life of Robert Blair, Minister of St. Andrews, Containing his Autobiography, from 1593–1636 (Edinburgh: Wodrow Society, 1848), 7.Google Scholar

98. Todd, , The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland, 87, n. 12, 89, 92–94, 98, 168, 170, 344–46, 348–49Google Scholar; Schmidt, , Holy Fairs, 19, 32–33.Google Scholar

99. Scots, like their French Reformed counterparts, also fasted prior to the ordination of ministers: Todd, , The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland, 386.Google Scholar

100. Not everyone was pleased in this regard. John Maxwell, the Caroline bishop of Ross who was ousted in 1638, was a bitter opponent of the Presbyterians. He thought that the public fasts were politically oriented and “too frequently” led to “commotion, sedition [and] rebellion”: Maxwell, John, The Burthen of lssachar: or, The Tyrannicall Power and Practises of the Presbyteriall Government in Scotland (n.p., 1646), 36.Google Scholar

101. Lamont, John, The Diary of Mr. John Lamont of Newton, 1649–1671 (Edinburgh: Maitland Club, 1830), 14.Google Scholar

102. Ibid., 58.

103. Todd, , The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland, 180–81, 250, 346–52, 357.Google Scholar

104. Ibid., 183, 222.

105. Fatio, “Le jeûne genevois,” 434.

106. Houston, Rab, “The Consistory of the Scots Church, Rotterdam: An Aspect of ‘Civic Calvinism,’ c. 1600–1800,” Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 87 (1996): 377.Google Scholar

107. Burlamachi, Fabrice, Sermon fait au jour de jusne celebré par les Eglises Reformées de Daufiné le 3e jour de decembre 1662 sur l'Apocalypse, chapit. III, v. 1, 2, 3 (Geneva: Jean Antoine et Samuel de Tournes, 1663), 55Google Scholar. The public demonstration implicit in the fast is reminiscent of the practice among Parisian Protestants of singing the Psalms while en route to worship at the temple beyond the city walls at Charenton.

108. Cf. the Lutheran tradition of singing hymns as described by Karant-Nunn, , The Reformation of Ritual, 196.Google Scholar

109. For the establishment and spread of Corpus Christi during the Middle Ages, see Rubin, Miri, Corpus Christi: The Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).Google Scholar

110. Jacques Fontaine, a Huguenot refugee to the British Isles after the Revocation, related that “my father [a pastor in France] was extremely fervent and, consequently, emotionally moving”: Dianne W. Ressinger, ed., Memoirs of the Reverend Jacques Fontaine 1658–1728 (London: The Huguenot Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1992), 36Google Scholar. On the other hand, it is difficult to imagine that all Reformed preachers evoked similarly strong emotional responses.