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A Revisionist View of the Nanjing Decade: Confucian Fascism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2009

Frederic Wakeman Jr.
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The foundation of this association has now been laid. People call us Blue Shirts or terrorists. That is nothing. The important problem to be solved is how to create a new revolutionary atmosphere so as to lead the revolutionary masses⃜ In China today definite action must be taken for temporary relief as well as for fundamental cure. However, what we need now is a fundamental cure. Our present problem is not the Japanese. Our problem is not the invasion of our north-eastern provinces and Jehol. If we can maintain the status quo, it will be enough for the present time. As a revolutionary government, the loss of a little territory does not mean much. A revolutionary movement has both to advance and retreat. When our strength is not enough, it is natural to retreat. We have lost territory today, but we will take it back the next day when we have strength

Type
Reappraising Republican China
Information
The China Quarterly , Volume 150 , June 1997 , pp. 395 - 432
Copyright
Copyright © The China Quarterly 1997

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References

1 Quoted in Wilbur Burton, “Chiang's secret blood brothers, ” Asia,May 1936, p. 309.

2 Legge James, The Chinese Classics with a Translation, Critical and Exegetical Notes, frologomena, and Copious Indexes (Taipei: Wenxing shudian, 1966 ), Vol. 1, p. 407.

3 Maria Hsia Chang, “ ‘Fascism’ and Modern China, ” The China Quarterly,No. 79 (September 1979 ), pp. 553 –567; Lloyd E. Eastman, “Fascism and Modern China: a j rejoinder, ” The China Quarterly,No. 80 (December 1979), pp. 838–842.

4 Lloyd E. Eastman, “New insights into the nature of the Nationalist regime, ” Republican China, Wol.9, No. 2( 1984 ), pp. 8 –18; Joseph Fewsmith, “Response to Eastman, ” Republican China,Vol. 9, No. 2 (1984), pp. 19–27; and Bradley Geisert, “Probing KMT rule: reflections on Eastman's ‘new insights', “ Republican China,Vol. 9, No. 2 (1984), pp: 28–39.

5 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” (“The true conditions and actual circumstances of the so-called Fuxingshe”), Zhuanji wenxue (Biographies), shang,Vol. 35, No. 3 ( 1979 ), pp. 32 –38; Thong,Vol. 35, No. 4 (1979), pp. 68–73; xia,Vol. 35, No. 5 (1979), pp. 81–86; and Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi (A History of the Sanminzhuyi Lixingshe)(Taipei: Shixian chubanshe, 1984). See also Deng Yuanzhong, “Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi chugao” (“Preliminary draft history of the Sanminzhuyi lixingshe”), Zhuanji wenxue,Vol. 39, No. 4 (1983), pp. 65–69; and Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shultte” (“A brief account of the Revival Society”) in Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference National Committee, Wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui (eds.), Wenshi ziliao xuanji (Selections of Historical Materials)(Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1960), fascicle 11, pp. 21–71.

6 Carl J. Friedrich (ed.), Totalitarianism; Proceedings of a Conference Held at the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, March 1953(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1954); Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew K. Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship arid Autocracy(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Carl J. Friedrich, Totalitarianism in Perspective: Three Views(New York: Praeger, 1969).

7 William Wei, Counterrevolution in China: The Nationalists in Jiangxi During the Soviet Period(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985 ), p. 45.

8 Howard L. Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China(New York: Columbia University Press, 1967– 1971, 1979), Vol. 2, pp. 164 –65; Zhang Weihan, “Dai Li yu ‘Juntong ju"’ (“Dai Li and the Military Statistics Bureau”) in Wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui (eds.), Zhejiang wenshi ziliao xuanji,No. 23 (Zhejiang: Renmin chubanshe. 1982), p. 83.

9 Christian Henriot, “Le gouvemement municipal de Shanghai, 1927 –1937, ” Ph.D. dissertation, Universite de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, 1983, p. 102.

10 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,pp. 33 –34, 104.

11 Ibid.pp. 64 –65.

12 Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,pp. 55 –56.

13 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,pp. 104, 105, 127.

14 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” Thong,p. 71; Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 70.

15 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,pp. 63, 106–107.

16 Ibid.p. 322.

17 Ibid.p. 67.

18 Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China,Vol. 1, p. 239, and Vol. 3, p. 342.

19 Chang Kuo-t'ao, The Rise of the Chinese Communist Party, 1921 –1927(Lawrence: The University Press of Kansas, 1971), Vol. 1, pp. 179 –181.

20 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 67; Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China,Vol. 2, p. 64.

21 The tract was called Huang [Ai] Pang [Renguari] zhi zhenxiang(The true facts about Huang Ai and Pang Renquan). For Huang and Pang see Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China,Vol. 2, p. 94.

22 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,pp. 67 –68.

23 Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China,Vol. 3, pp. 36 –37.

24 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 73.

25 Ibid.p. 83; Huang Yong, “Huangpu xuesheng de zhengzhi zuzhi ji qi yanbian, ” (“Whampoa students’ political organizations and their evolution”) in Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference National Committee, Wenshi ziliao xuanji,fascicle 11, p. 14.

26 Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China,Vol. 1, p. 161; John Israel, Student Nationalism in China, 1927 –1937(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966), pp. 59–63.

27 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 108.

28 Ibid..29. Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” p. 73.

30 Parks M. Coble, “Super-patriots and secret agents: the Blue Shirts and Japanese secret services in North China, ” paper presented at the Center for Chinese Studies Regional Seminar, Berkeley, 21 March 1987, p. 13.

31 Cited in Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927 –1937(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972), pp. 55 –56.

32 Yun Yiqun, Sanshi nianjianwen zaji (Miscellaneous Jottings on 30 Years of What Was Seen and Heard)(Zhenjiang: Jinling shuhuashe, 1983 ), p. 43.

33 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 78

34 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” p. 35.

35 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 62, 109.

36 Ibid.pp. 79, 109, 110, 126–27.

37 Henriot, “Le gouvernement municipal de Shanghai, 1927 –1937, ” pp. 105 –106.

38 Israel, Student Nationalism in China,pp. 71 –75; Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China,Vol. 1, pp. 328–29.

39 Zhang Weihan, “Dai Li yu ‘Juntong ju, ‘ ” p. 84.

40 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe ski,p. 111 –13.

41 Ibid,pp.25, 112.

42 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 35.

43 Interview with Deng Wenyi and Teng Jie, cited in Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi, p.113.

44 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” pp. 35 –36; Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 114; Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 56.

45 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi, p.130.

46 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 35; Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi, p.76

47 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 35.

48 Ibid.

49 Ibid.p. 36.

50 Zhang Weihan, “Dai Li yu ‘Juntong ju\ ” p. 84; Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shultte, ” p. 38.

51 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 36.

52 Ibid.

53 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 117.

54 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 36; Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 117.

55 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 36.

56 Ibid.;Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,pp. 118, 119.

57 Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 57.

58 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 118 –19; Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 37.

59 Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 41.

60 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 37.

61 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 119.

62 Yun Yiqun, Sanshinianjianwen zaji,p. 43; Hu Menghua, “CC waiwei zuzhi Chengshe shimo” (”The whole story of the CC front organization in the Sincerity Club”), in Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference National Committee, Wenshi ziliao xuanji,fascicle 14, p. 147.

63 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 128.

64 Ibid.p. 129.

65 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 28.

66 Ibid., zhong,p. 71.

67 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 37. See also Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” pp. 23–24.

68 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” zhong,p. 72.

69 Ibid.p. 37.

70 Huang Yong, “Huangpu xuesheng, ” p. 13; Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics,p. 56.

71 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” pp. 23 –24. See also Yun Yiqun, Sanshi nianjianwen zaji,p. 43.

72 Paul T. K. Sih (ed.), The Strenuous Decade: China′s Nation-Building Efforts, 1927 –1937(New York: St John's University Press, 1970), p. 50.

73 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” pp. 24 –27.

74 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” zhong,pp. 68, 70.

75 Ibid.p. 69.

76 Ibid.p. 37.

77 Ibid.78. Huang Yong, “Huangpu xuesheng, ” p. 16.

79 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” pp. 37, 38.

80 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” p. 26.

81 Zhang Weihan, “Dai Li yu ‘Juntong ju, ‘ ” p. 85.

82 Shen Zui, Juntong neimu (The Inside Story of the Military Statistics (Bureau))(Beijing: Wenshi ziliao chubanshe, 1984 ), pp.i–ii; Huang Yong, “Huangpu xuesheng, ” p. 13.

83 Huang Yong, “Huangpu xuesheng, ” p. 14.

84 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” p. 25.

85 Burton, “Chiang's secret blood brothers, ” p. 310.

86 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” pp. 24 –25.

87 Ibid.pp. 24 –26.

88 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 129.

89 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” p. 24. Informants in the PRC who have had access to detailed information on former Fuxingshe members report that they seldom knew the “inner” details of the entire organization's top tiers.

90 Ibid.;Huang Yong, “Huangpu xuesheng, ” pp. 12 –13.

91 “Blueshirts - Fascisti Movement in China, ” Special Branch Secret Memorandum, 20 June 1933, in Shanghai Municipal Police (International Settlement) Files, No. D-4685, p. 4. The non-military members were especially important to Chiang Kai-shek. Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics,p. 59

92 Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China,Vol. 2, pp. 79 –80. See also Wei, Counterrevolution in China,pp. 35 –36.

93 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 69.

94 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 35.

95 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,pp. 13–14, 16–17.

96 “The Blue Shirt Society, ” Beiping chenbao,date unknown. Translated in Special Branch Report, 29 June 1933, in Shanghai Municipal Police (International Settlement) Files, No. D-4685, p. 2. See also Zeng Kuoqing, “He Mei xieding qian Fuxingshe zai Huabei de huodong, ” (“The activities of the Fuxingshe in north China before the He Mei Agreement”) in Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference National Committee, Wenshi ziliao xuanji,fascicle 14, p. 131; Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,pp. 16 –17.

97 Maria Hsia Chang, ” ‘Fascism’ and Modern China, ” pp. 564–65; Eastman, “Fascism and Modern China: a rejoinder, ” p. 842.

98 “The Blue Shirt Society, ” pp. 2 –3.

99 Zeng Kuoqing, “He Mei xieding, ” p. 135. 100. These principles are enumerated in Hakano Ken'ichi's studies cited in Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics,pp. 55 –56.

101 Zhang Weihan, “Dai Li yu ‘Juntong ju', ” p. 84; Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” p. 12.

102 Huang Yong, “Huangpu xuesheng, ” p. 12.

103 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 17. See also Coble, “Super-patriots and secret agents, ” passim.

104 “The Blue Shirt Society, ” p. 3.

105 “Memorandum on the Blue Shirt Society, ” p. 3.

106 Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics,p. 56.

107 “The Blue Shirt Society, ” pp. 1 –2.

108 Ibid.p. 2.

109 See, for example, ibid.p. 1.

110 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” zhong,p. 69.

111 Ibid.shang, p.3S.

112 “Memorandum on the “The Blue Shirt Society, ” p. 3; “The Fascist or ‘Blue Shirt’ Party in China, ” pp. 1–2.

113 Shanghai Municipal Police Files, D-4685 (C), 3/10/40.

114 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” xia,p. 82; Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 5.

115 “Blueshirts - Fascisti Movement in China, ” p. 2; Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics,pp. 58, 64.

116 Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,pp. 68 –81.

117 “Two Sources of Anti-Japanism, ” in The Osaka Mainichi and the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Supplement: The China Emergency,20 October 1937, p. 29.

118 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shulue, ” pp. 30, 43.

119 China Quarterly,summer 1937, 2.488, cited in Walter E. Gourlay, ” ‘Yellow’ unionism in Shanghai: a study of Kuomintang technique in labor control, 1927–1937, ” Papers on China,Vol. 7 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Committee on International and Regional Studies, 1953), p. 106.

120 “Blue Shirts Organization, ” p. 4.

121 Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 22.

122 “The Blue Shirts for China, ” The North China Daily News,20 June 1933. Clipped in Shanghai Municipal Police (International Settlement) Files, No. D-4685, 8 July 1933.

123 William C. Kirby, Germany and Republican China(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984 ), pp. 137, 232

124 Huang Yong, “Huangpu xuesheng, ” p. 11; Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 22.

125 “The Blue Shirt Society, ” p. 7; Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” p. 58; “Memorandum on the Blue Shirt Society, ” p. 4; ” ‘Blue Shirts’ to suspend anti-Japanese activities, ” The Shanghai Times,21 January 1936, n.p.

126 Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics,p. 53.

127 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi Lixingshe shi,p. 130.

128 Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics,pp. 46 –47.

129 Zhang Xin, “Hu Zongnan qi ren, ” (”Hu Zongnan the man”) in Wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui (eds.), Zhejiang wenshi ziliao xuanji (Selected Historical Materials on Zhejiang,No. 23 (Zhejiang: Renmin chubanshe, 1982 ), pp. 172 –73.

130 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” pp. 54 –55.

131 Ibid.See also Hung-mao Tien, Government and Politics,p. 63. “The Fascist or ‘Blue Shirt’ Party in China, ” p. 2; “The Blue Shirt Society and the arrest of Yuan Hsueh Yi, ” p. 1; Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China,Vol. 1, pp. 48–49, and Vol. 4, p. 18.

132 Extract from French Police Daily Intelligence Report, 12 August 1933. In Shanghai Municipal Police (International Settlement) Files, No. D-4685, 26 August 1933.

133 “Blue Shirts for China, ” The North China Daily News,20 June 1933. Clipped in Shanghai Municipal Police (International Settlement) Files, No. D-4685, 8 July 1933. 134. Shanghai Times,7 January 1935, quoted in Shanghai Municipal Police Files, D-4040, 8/7/35.

135 “The Blue Shirt Society, ” p. 7. For a characterization of the Blue Shirts as “a party within a party, ” see “Memorandum on the Blue Shirt Society, ” p. 3; ‘Two sources of anti-Japanism, ” p. 29.

136 “Xiandai junren xu zhi” (”What a modern soldier must know”), in Zhongguo guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui, Dangshi weiyuanhui, (ed.), Xian zongtong Jiang gong sixiang yanlun zongji (Complete Collection of the Ideas, Speeches, and Writings of the Late President Chiang Kai-shek)(Taipei, 1984 ), pp. 321–22. See, for other references by Chiang to the success of Turkey, Italy and Germany in nation-building by adhering to social discipline and organizational rules, Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 26.

137 “Rune zuo geming dangyuan” (”How to be a revolutionary party member”), in Zhongguo guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui, Dangshi weiyuanhui (ed.), Xian zongtong Jiang gong sixiang yanlun zongji,p. 564.

138 “Rune zuo geming dangyuan” pp. 565 –66; Mary Backus Rankin's comments at the “Reappraising Republican China” conference, London, 18–19 December 1995, p. 1.

139 “Ruhe zuo geming dangyuan, ” p. 566.

140 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 69. For the identification of the Chinese with the misfortunes experienced by the Germans after the First World War, see the articles from Qiantucited in Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 24.

141 Mary Backus Rankin's comments at the “Reappraising Republican China” conference, London, 18–19 December 1995, p. 3

142 Shanghai tongshe (eds.), Shanghai yanjiu ziliao (Research Materials on Shanghai)(Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1936 ), p. 184.

143 Gan Guoxnn, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” xia,p. 82. 144. “Memorandum on the Blue Shirt Society, ” p. 2. “The Secret Military Police of China was frankly modeled after the Gestapo, ” Oliver J. Caldwell, A Secret War: Americans in China, 1944 –1945(Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984), p. 23; Ai Jingwu, “Fuxingshe Henan fenshe de pianduan huiyi, ” (”Fragments of reminiscences about the Fuxingshe branch in Henan”), in Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Henan sheng weiyuanhui, Wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui (comps.), Henan wenshi ziliao (Historical Materials on Henan)(Henan: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1981), fascicle 5, p. 108.

145 Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 15.

146 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shultie, ” p. 35; Deng Yuanzhong, Sanminzhuyi lixingshe shi,p. 16.

147 Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,pp. 22 –23.

148 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” p. 35.

149 For Liu Bingli, see also Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 17. w 1 150. Ibid.pp. 33–34. in ‘151. Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” pp. 35–36. See also Hung-mao Tien, GovernmentUj and Politics,p. 63.

152 Eastman, “Fascism and Modern China: a rejoinder, ” p. 841. See also Hung-mao Tien, m Government and Politics,pp. 64–65. w153. Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 130; Mary Matossian, g I “Ideologies of delayed industrialization: some tensions and ambiguities, ” in John H. Kautsky (ed.), Political Change in Underdeveloped Countries: Nationalism and Communism(New York: Wiley and Sons, 1962 ), pp. 252–264.

154 Joseph Fewsmith, Party, State, and Local Elites in Republican China: Merchant Organizations and Politics in Shanghai(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985 ), p. 178

155 Gourlay, ” ‘Yellow’ unionism in Shanghai, ” pp. 128 –29.

156 Mary Backus Rankin's comments at the “Reappraising Republican China” conference, London, 18–19 December 1995, p. 1.

157 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” xia,pp. 81, 84.

158 Chen Dunzheng, Yuanxiage suibi,quoted in ibid.p. 84

159 Ibid.

160 Ai Jingwu. “Fuxingshe Henan fenshe de pianduan huiyi, ” pp. 107 –114.

161 Joshua H. Howard, “Workers at war: industrial relations in the Nationalist arsenals of Chungking, 1932–1949, ” Ph.D. thesis in progress, University of California, Berkeley, p. 78; Xiong Zhuoyun. “Fandong tongzhi shiqi de Chengdu jingcha” (”The Chengdu police s during the period of reactionary rule”), in Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, S Sichuan weiyuanhui, Wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui (comps.), Sichuan wenshi ziliao xuanji (Selections of Historical Documents on Sichuan),No. 17, pp. 108–129 (Chengdu, 1965 ); Shao Ping, Zhang Yuanyou and Li Ying, “Guomindang ‘Zhongtong’ zai Chengdu de fandong xinwen huodong” (”The reactionary journalistic activities of the KMT's Central Statistics (Bureau) in Chengdu”), in Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, Sichuan weiyuanhui, Wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui, Sichuan wenshi ziliao xuanji,fascicle 24, pp. 64–72. See also, for suggestions along these lines: Mary Backus Rankin's comments at the “Reappraising Republican China” conference, London, 18–19 December 1995, p. 3.

162 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” pp. 40 –^1.

163 Maria Hsia Chang, The Chinese Blue Shirt Society,p. 50

164 Burton, “Chiang's secret blood brothers, ” p. 308 –310.

165 Shepherd-Paxton Talk, in Records of the Department of State, Internal, China, 1930 – 1939,No. D130, 00/14127.

166 Xiao Zuolin, “Fuxingshe shuliie, ” p. 55.

167 Ibid.pp. 37, 41, 56.

168 Wei, Counterrevolution in China,pp. 76 –78.

169 Gan Guoxun, “Guanyu suowei ‘Fuxingshe’ de zhenqing shikuang, ” p. 81.

170 Burton, “Chiang's secret blood brothers, ” p. 310; Ilona Ralf Sues, Shark Fins and Millet(New York: Garden City Publishing Co., 1944.), pp. 47 –48; Neale Hunter, “The Chinese League of Left-wing Writers, Shanghai, 1930–1936, ” Ph.D. thesis, Australian National University, August 1973, p. 270.

171 “Political implications of “The New Life Movement’ in China.” Nanjing dispatch no. 473, 21 May 1937, in Records of the Department of State, Internal, China, 1930–1939,No. 00/14127, 19 June 1937. See also Wei, Counterrevolution in China,p. 77

172 See Wen-hsin Yeh, “Dai Li and the Liu Geqing affair: heroism in the Chinese Secret Service during the War of Resistance, ” Journal of Asian Studies,Vol. 48, No. 3 ( 1989 ), pp. 545 –562.