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China's Third World Foreign Policy: The Case of Angola and Mozambique, 1961–93*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2009

Steven F. Jackson
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The people who have triumphed in their own revolution should help those still struggling for liberation. This is our internationalist duty. Mao Zedong

In the middle of October 1975, a dusty column of South African troops, equipped with armoured cars and helicopters, rumbled north into Angola, further internationalizing the already complex civil war there. The South African attack not only broadened the war, prompting an even greater Cuban intervention, it also posed a dilemma for China, which supported the same Angolan parties as did South Africa: should China follow its policy of tit-for-tat opposition to Soviet expansion world-wide, even if it meant allying with the racist government of South Africa? Or should it follow the opinions of its fellow Third World nations in Africa, even if it led to a Soviet bloc advance? The difficulty China's leaders faced in the autumn of 1975 was one which had hidden origins in the different ways in which China viewed conflicts around the world, a difficulty that had lain dormant for years but which erupted in 1975 into full view, and with disastrous consequences for Chinese foreign policy in Africa. It is, moreover, a discrepancy which continues to exist in China's views of the world today.

How does China view conflicts and revolutions in the Third World? How do the Chinese organize their relations with Third World revolutionary organizations and their post-independence governments? This article examines the tensions and shifts of Chinese policy towards two essentially simultaneous revolutionary struggles and their post-independence governments: Angola and Mozambique.

Type
Chinese Foreign Policy
Information
The China Quarterly , Volume 142 , June 1995 , pp. 388 - 422
Copyright
Copyright © The China Quarterly 1995

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References

1. For reasons of clarity, references to seasons throughout the paper are to northern hemisphere seasons, even though Angola lies south of the equator.

2. The CONCP had evolved from previous organizations of similar nature, the Movimento anti-colonialista (MAC) which formed the Frente revolucionaria africana para a independencia nacional (FRAIN). Amilcar Cabral of Guinea-Bissau was the main organizer of these groups. See Chabal, Patrick, Amilcar Cabral: Revolutionary Leadership and People's War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).Google Scholar

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30. Beijing Review, 16 August 1963, p. 38 and Remin ribao, 18 March 1964, p. 4; Renmin ribao, 15 April 1964, p. 4, 24 April 1964, p. 5.

31. Marcum, Angolan Revolution, p. 132.

32. As the Chinese were supporting movements to overthrow the government in Leopodville (Kinshasa) at the time, the Congolese reluctance is understandable.

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36. Ibid. pp. 233–34.

37. Renmin ribao, 10 April 1968, p. 6 and 13 March 1970, p. 6.

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41. Africa Contemporary Record 1971–72, p. B445.

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51. SCMP, No. 3520, p. 31 and Larkin, China and Africa, p. 222.

52. Larkin, China and Africa, pp. 187–89.

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57. Renmin ribao, 9 December 1967, p. 5.

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65. Renmin ribao, 11 January 1973, p. 6 and Beijing Review, 19 January 1973, p. 23.

66. Renmin ribao, 21 February 1972, p. 6, 30 March 1972, p. 6, 19 August 1972, p. 6.

67. The OAU had withdrawn its recognition of the GRAE qua government in June 1971. Marcum, Angolan Revolution, p. 227–28 and Africa Contemporary Record, 1974–75, p. B537.

68. SCMP, No. 5514, p. 95, No. 5515, p. 133, No. 5516, p. 170, No. 5524, p. 92 and Marcum, Angolan Revolution, p. 228.

69. Africa Contemporary Record, 1974–75, p. A46. The number of advisers the Chinese sent to Kinkuzu is not entirely clear. Some authors claim the figure was 250 (Africa Contemporary Record, 1974–75, p. A46); others that 112 was the number ( Ebinger, Charles, “External intervention in internal war: the politics of the Angolan civil war,” Orbis, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Fall 1976), p. 681Google Scholar); and others contend that it was only 20 (Thomas Henriksen, Journal of Modern African Studies, No. 18 (June 1980), p. 349). Recent evidence suggests that Chinese tactical training teams of about a dozen people were rotated in Kinkuzu, and that a total of approximately 100 Chinese instructors passed through the FNLA camp until their abrupt departure in October 1975. (The author is grateful to Professor John Marcum for the latter information, obtained through interviews with former FNLA officials.)

70. Marcum, Angolan Revolution, p. 229.

71. Renmin ribao, 9 December 1967, p. 5 and 16 July 1968, p. 6.

72. Renmin ribao, 11 March 1970, p. 6, 12 July 1970, p. 6, 7 December 1970, p. 6.

73. Renmin ribao, 1–17 September 1971, various issues.

74. Renmin ribao, 9 December 1970, p. 5.

75. Renmin ribao, 28 February 1971, p. 6. This was the report of COREMO's only significant attack at Mukangadzi, near the Cabora Bassa hydroelectric project. The attack was highly controversial, as six Portuguese technicians were taken prisoner and later executed. Although People's Daily reprinted COREMO's version of the attack, no further reports from COREMO were seen in the Chinese media.

76. Unpublished letter to the New York Times, Africa Liberation Reader, Vol. 2, pp. 105–107.

77. Editorial Department of People's Daily, “Chairman Mao's theory of the differentiation of the three worlds is a major contribution to Marxism-Leninism” (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1 November 1977).

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81. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 17 November 1975, pp. A18–19.

82. Africa Contemporary Record 1973–74, p. B519 and Africa Contemporary Record 1974–75, p. B537.

83. Africa Contemporary Record 1975–76, p. A67.

84. Colin Legum, “Angola: foreign intervention,” Africa Contemporary Record 1975–76, p. 537.

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91. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 10 November 1975, p. A4. There is ample evidence, however, that the Chinese did in fact seek to provide arms to UNITA and FNLA during the civil war.

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102. Colin Legum contends that the shipment was held up at Dar es Salaam by Nyerere at the insistance of Machel. Legum, Colin, “Angola and the Horn of Africa,” in Kaplan, Stephen S. (ed.), Diplomacy of Power: Soviet Armed Forces as a Political Instrument (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1981), p. 573.Google Scholar Klinghoffer favours the position that the Chinese did supply UNITA that year. Klinghoffer, Arthur Jay, The Angolan Civil War: A Study in Soviet Policy in the Third World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980), p. 192Google Scholar n. 21. Whether or not the shipment arrived, it did indicate a clear Chinese effort at maintaining the “anti-Soviet” forces in Angola. Robert Moss claims that the Chinese supplied UNITA with seven tons of arms in early 1975. Sunday Telegraph, 6 February 1977.

103. Klinghoffer, Angolan Civil War, p. 106.

104. Ibid. p. 104. Leslie Gelb in the New York Times claims not to have any information regarding Sino-American co-operation in Angola. Gelb, Leslie, “U.S., Soviet, China reported aiding Portugal, Angola,” New York Times, 25 September 1975, pp. 1, 25.Google Scholar

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109. An anonymous Chinese official quoted in Arthur Gavshon, Crisis in Africa: Battleground of East and West (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1981), p. 139.

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111. Meyns, Befreiung und Nationaler Wiederaufbau von Mozambique, p. 27.

112. Beijing Review, 20 September 1974, p. 16. 10 January 1975, pp. 17–18.

113. Beijing Review, 4 July 1975, p. 25.

114. Meyns, Befreiung und Nationaler Wiederaufbau von Mozambique, p. 62 and Ebinger, “External intervention in internal war,” p. 688.

115. Legum, “The Soviet Union, China and the West,” p. 748.

116. Marcum, Angolan Revolution, p. 172.

117. Henricksen. Revolution and Counterrevolution, p. 187.

118. Renmin ribao, 19 February 1975, p. 1, 21 February 1975, pp. 1–2, 5 etc.

119. CIA, Communist Aid Activities, p. 11.

120. Legum, “The Soviet Union, China and the West,” p. 749.

121. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 23 July 1976, p. A8.

122. Xinhua Weekly, No. 1 (6 January 1979), p. 14.

123. FBIS, Translations from Red Flag, 4 April 1978, p. 176.

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130. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 15 November 1979, p. 15.

131. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 22 December 1978, pp. A17–18.

132. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 4 January 1979. pp. A24–25.

133. Renmin ribao, 15 September 1979, p. 4.

134. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 8 January 1980, p. 11.

135. The Guardian (Manchester), 22 January 1979, p. 3.

136. Africa Contemporary Record 1980–81, p. B709.

137. CIA, Communist Aid Activities, pp. 8, 23.

138. Henriksen, “Angola, Mozambique, and the Soviet Union,” p. 63.

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142. Quoted in Africa Contemporary Record 1979–80, p. B737.

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149. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 1 September 1981, p. 11.

150. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 23 February 1982, p. Cl.

151. Beijing Review, 5 July 1982, p. 3.

152. Beijing Review, 4 October 1982, p. 10.

153. Beijing Review, 1 November 1982, p. 10.

154. Angola Information (London), No. 5 (10 December 1982).

155. Renmin ribao, 13 June 1984, p. 4, 14 June 1984, p. 4.

156. Renmin ribao, 12 December 1984, p. 6, 9 December 1984, p. 6.

157. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 24 October 1988, pp. 10–11.

158. Ibid. p. 11.

159. Kyodo in FBIS Daily Report: China, 24 October 1988, p. 11.

160. Chissano, “Joachim Chissano,” pp. 43–44.

161. Renmin ribao, 13 October 1984, p. 4.

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167. FBIS, Daily Report: China, 13 February 1988, p. 6.

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