Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T16:42:22.781Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Care leavers, ambiguous loss and early parenting: explaining high rates of pregnancy and parenting amongst young people transitioning from out-of-home care

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 November 2020

Jade Purtell Open the ORCID record for Jade Purtell [Opens in a new window] ,
Philip Mendes Open the ORCID record for Philip Mendes [Opens in a new window]  and
Bernadette J. Saunders
Jade Purtell*
Affiliation:
Monash University, Social Work, 900 Dandenong Road, Caulfield East, Victoria3145, Australia
Philip Mendes
Affiliation:
Monash University, Social Work, 900 Dandenong Road, Caulfield East, Victoria3145, Australia
Bernadette J. Saunders
Affiliation:
Monash University, Social Work, 900 Dandenong Road, Caulfield East, Victoria3145, Australia
*
Author for correspondence: Jade Purtell, Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper is a narrative review examining the high prevalence of care leaver early parenting in the context of (i) key transitions from care studies taken from the last few decades, (ii) a structured review using Scopus of studies from 2015–2020 focussed specifically on young people transitioning from care and early parenting and (iii) Boss’s (2010) Ambiguous Loss theory. Young care leavers’ challenges, in general, put them at higher risk of protective interventions with their children and may contribute to the growing numbers of children being placed in increasingly over-stretched out-of-home care systems. Questions of surveillance bias for service-connected young people are examined in light of recent large-scale studies using administrative data sets. Serious oversights in responding to young people’s experiences of trauma and exploitation are identified. The relevance of sexual health programs for young people actively seeking pregnancies is discussed with emerging evidence that disengagement from schooling may have more of a role in explaining early pregnancy and parenting than previously thought. The authors test the relevance of Ambiguous Loss theory in understanding how removal from families of origin and placement experiences may affect young people and lead to ‘wanted’ pregnancies.

Keywords

Care leaverslossearly parenting
Type
Articles
Information
Children Australia , Volume 45 , Special Issue 4: Special Issue: Poverty and Child Abuse , December 2020 , pp. 241 - 248
Copyright
© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Australian Human Rights Commission. (2017). Children’s rights report (2204–1176). Australian Human Rights Commission. https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/childrens-rights/publications/childrens-rights-report-2017 Google Scholar
Biehal, N., Clayden, J., Stein, M., & Wade, J. (1995). Moving on: Young people and leaving care schemes. HMSO.Google Scholar
Biehal, N., & Wade, J. (1996). Looking back, looking forward: Care leavers, families and change. Children and Youth Services Review, 18(4), 425–445. doi: 10.1016/0190-7409(96)00013-8 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boss, P. (2010). The trauma and complicated grief of ambiguous loss. Pastoral Psychology, 59(2), 137–145. doi: 10.1007/s11089-009-0264-0 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brannstrom, L., Vinnerljung, B., & Hjern, A. (2015). Risk factors for teenage childbirths among child welfare clients: Findings from Sweden. Children and Youth Services Review, 53(6), 44–51. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.03.018 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brannstrom, L., Vinnerljung, B., & Hjern, A. (2016). Child welfare clients have higher risks for teenage childbirths: Which are the major confounders? European Journal of Public Health, 26(4), 592. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/ckw057 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cashmore, J., & Paxman, M. (1996). Longitudinal study of wards leaving care. NSW Department of Community Services.Google Scholar
Cashmore, J., & Paxman, M. (2006). Predicting after-care outcomes: The importance of ‘felt’ security. Child and Family Social Work, 11, 232–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cashmore, J., & Paxman, M. (2007). Longitudinal study of wards leaving care: Four to five years on. NSW Department of Community Services. http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/321728/research_wards_leavingcare2.pdf Google Scholar
Child Protection Systems Royal Commission. (2016). The life they deserve: Child protection systems royal commission report, Volume 1: Summary and Report. Government of South Australia. https://www.agd.sa.gov.au/sites/default/files/preface_summary_and_recommendations.pdf?v=1491456705 Google Scholar
Commission for Children and Young People. (2015). “… as a good parent would…” Inquiry into the adequacy of the provision of residential care services to Victorian children and young people who have been subject to sexual abuse or sexual exploitation whilst residing in residential care. Commission for Children and Young People. https://ccyp.vic.gov.au/assets/Publications-inquiries/as-a-good-parent-would.pdf Google Scholar
Commission for Children and Young People. (2019). ‘In our own words’: Systemic inquiry into the lived experience of children and young people in the Victorian out-of-home care system. Commission for Children and Young People. https://ccyp.vic.gov.au/assets/Publications-inquiries/CCYP-In-Our-Own-Words.pdf Google Scholar
Connolly, J., Heifetz, M., & Bohr, Y. (2012). Pregnancy and motherhood among adolescent girls in child protective services: A meta-synthesis of qualitative research. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 6(5), 614–635. doi: 10.1080/15548732.2012.723970 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtney, M., Dworsky, A., Brown, A., Cary, C., Love, K., & Vorhies, V. (2011). Midwest Evaluation of the adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 26. Chapin Hall. https://www.chapinhall.org/wp-content/uploads/Midwest-Eval-Outcomes-at-Age-26.pdf Google Scholar
Courtney, M., Dworsky, A., Lee, J., & Raap, M. (2009). Midwest evaluation of the adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 23 and 24. Chapin Hall. https://www.chapinhall.org/wp-content/uploads/Midwest-Eval-Outcomes-at-Age-23-and-24.pdf Google Scholar
Courtney, M., Dworsky, A., Ruth Cusick, G., Havlicek, J., Perez, A., & Keller, T. (2007). Midwest Evaluation of the adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 21. Chapin Hall. https://www.chapinhall.org/wp-content/uploads/Midwest-Eval-Outcomes-at-Age-21.pdf Google Scholar
Courtney, M., Dworsky, A., Ruth, G., Keller, T., Havlicek, J., & Bost, N. (2005). Midwest evaluation of the adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at Age 19. Chapin Hall. https://www.chapinhall.org/research/at-age-19-youth-transitioning-out-of-foster-care-face-multiple-challenges/ Google Scholar
Courtney, M., Okpych, N., Park, K., Harty, J., Feng, H., Torres-Garcia, A., & Sayed, S. (2018). Findings from the California Youth Transitions to Adulthood Study (CalYOUTH): Conditions of youth at age 21. Chapin Hall. https://www.chapinhall.org/research/calyouth-wave3/ Google Scholar
Dominelli, L., Strega, S., Callahan, M., & Rutman, D. (2005). Endangered children: Experiencing and surviving the state as failed parent and grandparent. The British Journal of Social Work, 35(7), 1123–1144. doi: 10.1093/bjsw/bch224 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dworsky, A. (2015). Child welfare services involvement among the children of young parents in foster care. Child Abuse and Neglect, 45, 68–79. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.04.005 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dworsky, A., & Courtney, M. (2010). The risk of teenage pregnancy among transitioning foster youth: implications for extending state care beyond age 18. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(10), 1351–1356. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.06.002 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eastman, A. L., & Putnam-Hornstein, E. (2019). An examination of child protective service involvement among children born to mothers in foster care. Child Abuse and Neglect, 88, 317–325. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.11.002 Google ScholarPubMed
Ericsson, M. (2012). Contraceptive behavior and births among Swedish child welfare clients: A register-based study on 14–19 year old females. Stockholm University/Karolinska Institutet.Google Scholar
Fallon, D., & Broadhurst, K. (2015). Preventing unplanned pregnancy and improving preparation for parenthood for care-experienced young people. Coram. https://www.coram.org.uk/sites/default/files/resource_files/Preventing%20unplanned%20pregnancy%20and%20improving%20preparation%20for%20parenthood%20for%20care-experienced%20young%20people.pdf Google Scholar
Finigan-Carr, N., Steward, R., & Watson, C. (2018). Foster youth need sex ed, too!: Addressing the sexual risk behaviors of system-involved youth. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 13(3), 310–323. doi: 10.1080/15546128.2018.1456385 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Font, S., Cancian, M., Berger, L. M., & DiGiovanni, A. (2020). Patterns of intergenerational child protective services involvement. Child Abuse and Neglect, 99. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104247 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, A., Grace, R., Waniganayake, M., & Hadley, F. (2020). Practitioner and foster carer perceptions of the support needs of young parents in and exiting out-of-home care: A systematic review. Children and Youth Services Review, 108. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104512 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grant, M. J., & Booth, A. (2009). A typology of reviews: An analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 26(2), 91–108. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrman, J. W., Finigan-Carr, N., & Haigh, K. M. (2016). Intimate partner violence and pregnant and parenting adolescents in out-of-home care: Reflections on a data set and implications for intervention. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 26(15–16), 2409–2416. doi: 10.1111/jocn.13420 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knight, C., & Gitterman, A. (2019). Ambiguous loss and its disenfranchisement: The need for social work intervention. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 100(2), 164–173. doi: 10.1177/1044389418799937 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDowall, J. J. (2015). Sibling placement and contact in out-of-home care. CREATE Foundation. http://create.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Sibling-Report_LR.pdf Google Scholar
McDowall, J. J. (2016). CREATE’s Go Your Own Way resource for young people transitioning from care in Australia: An evaluation. CREATE Foundation. https://create.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/CREATE-Report-Card_GYOW-Report.pdf Google Scholar
Mendes, P. (2009). Improving outcomes for teenage pregnancy and early parenthood for young people in out-of-home care: A review of the literature. Youth Studies Australia, 28(4), 11–18.Google Scholar
Mendes, P., Johnson, G., & Moslehuddin, B. (2011). Young people leaving state out-of-home care: Australian policy and practice. Australian Scholarly Publishing.Google Scholar
Mendes, P., Johnson, G., & Moslehuddin, B. (2012). Young people transitioning from out-of-home care and relationships with family of origin: An examination of three recent Australian studies. Child Care in Practice, 18(4), 357–370. doi: 10.1080/13575279.2012.713849 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendes, P., & Rogers, J. (2020). Young people transitioning from out-of-home care: What are the lessons from extended care programmes in the USA and England for Australia? The British Journal of Social Work. doi: 10.1093/bjsw/bcaa028 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muir, S., & Hand, K. (2018). Beyond 18: The Longitudinal Study on Leaving Care Wave 1 Research Report: Transition planning and preparation. Australian Institute of Family Studies. https://aifs.gov.au/sites/default/files/publication-documents/1804_beyond_18_wave_1_research_report.pdf Google Scholar
Muir, S., Purtell, J., Hand, K., & Carroll, M. (2019). Beyond 18: The longitudinal study on leaving care wave 3 research report: Outcomes for young people leaving care in Victoria. https://aifs.gov.au/sites/default/files/publication-documents/1812_b18_wave_3_final_report.pdf Google Scholar
New South Wales Legislative Council. (2017). Child protection. NSW Parliament. https://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/lcdocs/inquiries/2396/Final%20report%20-%20Child%20protection.pdf Google Scholar
Ohene, S. K., & Garcia, A. (2020). Narratives of women’s retrospective experiences of teen pregnancy, motherhood, and school engagement while placed in foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 108. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104563 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pawson, R., Greenhalgh, T., Harvey, G., & Walshe, K. (2005). Realist review—a new method of systematic review designed for complex policy interventions. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy, 10(Suppl 1), 21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Purtell, J., & Mendes, P. (2019). Confident, ambitious and achieving: Care leavers supported by the Westcare Continuing Care program. https://www.academia.edu/39146011/CONFIDENT_AMBITIOUS_AND_ACHIEVING_CARE_LEAVERS_SUPPORTED_BY_THE_WESTCARE_CONTINUING_CARE_PROGRAM Google Scholar
Purtell, J., & Mendes, P. (2020). Relationship-based practice and service system expertise to support young people transitioning from out-of-home care in Victoria: An evaluation of the Salvation Army West Care Continuing Care Program. https://www.monash.edu/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/2110206/Westcare-Evaluation-report.pdf Google Scholar
Purtell, J., Mendes, P., Baidawi, S., & with Inder, B. (2016). Evaluation of the Berry Street Stand By Me Program: Wraparound support during the transition from out-of-home care. https://learning.berrystreet.org.au/sites/default/files/2018-05/Stand-by-Me-Evaluation.pdf Google Scholar
Purtell, J., Muir, S., & Carroll, M. (2019). Beyond 18: the Longitudinal Study on Leaving Care Wave 2 Research Report: transitioning to post-care life. https://aifs.gov.au/publications/beyond-18-longitudinal-study-leaving-care-wave-2-research-report Google Scholar
Putnam-Hornstein, E., Cederbaum, J., King, B., Cleveland, J., & Needell, B. (2013). A population-based examination of maltreatment history among adolescent mothers in California. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(6), 794–797. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.08.004 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapsey, C. M., & Rolston, C. J. (2020). Fostering the family, not just the child: Exploring the value of a residential family preservation programme from the perspectives of service users and staff. Children and Youth Services Review, 108. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104505 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, L. (2017). A small-scale qualitative scoping study into the experiences of looked after children and care leavers who are parents in Wales. Child and Family Social Work, 22(3), 1274–1282. doi: 10.1111/cfs.12344 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, L., Maxwell, N., & Elliott, M. (2019). When young people in and leaving state care become parents: What happens and why? Children and Youth Services Review, 104. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104387 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Senate Standing Committees on Community Affairs. (2015). Out of home care. Commonwealth of Australia. http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/Out_of_home_care/Report.Google Scholar
Stein, M. (2012). Young people leaving care: Supporting pathways to adulthood. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.Google Scholar
Victorian Auditor-General’s Office. (2014). Residential care services for children. State Government of Victoria. https://www.audit.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/20140326-Residential-Care.pdf Google Scholar
Vinnerljung, B., Franzon, E., & Danielsson, M. (2007). Teenage parenthood among child welfare clients: A Swedish national cohort study of prevalence and odds. Journal of Adolescence, 30(1), 97–116. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.12.002 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wade, J. (2008). The ties that bind: Support from birth families and substitute families for young people leaving care. British Journal of Social Work, 38(1), 39–54. doi: 10.1093/bjsw/bcl342 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wall-Wieler, E., Bolton, J., Liu, C., Wilcox, H., Roos, L. L., & Hjern, A. (2018). Intergenerational involvement in out-of-home care and death by suicide in Sweden: A population-based cohort study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 238, 506–512. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.06.022 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed