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Evolution or Revolution? Evaluating the Territorial State-Based Regime of International Law in the Context of the Physical Disappearance of Territory Due to Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 August 2016

CATHERINE BLANCHARD
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Abstract

The threat of the permanent physical disappearance of the territory of states no longer belongs to the mythical realm, and the situation is particularly imminent for small island developing states. While most international legal scholarship has so far focused on issues stemming from territorial disappearance, this article goes one step further. It questions the appropriateness of the classical notion of the territorial state — a socio-cultural and politico-legal entity evolving on a defined territorial area — as the basis for an international legal system faced with new realities created by climate change, sea-level rise, and globalization. After examining the current rules on statehood within the context of the physical disappearance of states’ territories and looking into the solutions suggested in the legal literature to address territorial loss, this article assesses a new way of understanding statehood by exploring theoretical lenses through which a new model of statehood could be contemplated.

Résumé

La disparition permanente du territoire des États est désormais une menace bien réelle, tout particulièrement pour les petits États insulaires en développement. Jusqu’à présent, la doctrine a surtout porté sur des questions découlant de la disparition territoriale, mais le présent article pousse la réflexion encore plus loin. Il remet en question la pertinence de la notion classique de l’État territorial — une entité socio-culturelle et politico-juridique évoluant sur un territoire défini — comme fondement du système juridique international à l’heure des nouvelles réalités causées par les changements climatiques, la hausse du niveau de la mer et la mondialisation. Après avoir présenté la notion actuelle d’État dans le contexte de la disparition physique de territoires ainsi que les solutions préconisées dans la littérature juridique pour lutter contre les effets de la disparition territoriale, nous explorerons une nouvelle notion d’État grâce à des concepts théoriques qui permettraient d’envisager un nouveau modèle étatique.

Keywords

Statehoodterritorysea-level risenew model of statehoodlegitimacy of international lawÉtatterritoirehausse du niveau de la mernouveau modèle étatiquelégitimité du droit international
Type
Articles
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Canadian Yearbook of International Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international , Volume 53 , October 2016 , pp. 66 - 118
Copyright
Copyright © The Canadian Yearbook of International Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international 2016 

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References

1 Stoutenburg, Jenny Grote, “When Do States Disappear? Thresholds of Effective Statehood and the Continued Recognition of ‘Deterritorialized’ Island States” in Gerrard, Michael & Wannier, Gregory, eds, Threatened Island Nations: Legal Implications of Rising Seas and a Changing Climate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013) 57 at 87 [Stoutenburg, “When Do”].Google Scholar

2 Davor Vidas, “Sea-Level Rise and International Law: At the Convergence of Two Epochs” (2014) 4 Climate Law 70 at 73.

3 See, eg, Derek Wong, “Sovereignty Sunk? The Position of ‘Sinking States’ at International Law” (2013) 14 Melb J Int’l L 346 at 347.

4 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), “Nation-State,” online: UNESCO <http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/nation-state/>; Cara Nine, “Ecological Refugees, States Borders, and the Lockean Proviso” (2010) 27:4 J Applied Philosophy 359 at 362; Pierré-Caps, Stéphane, “La mondialisation et la crise de l’État national” in Mouton, Jean-Denis & Cot, Jean-Pierre, eds, L’État dans la mondialisation: colloque de Nancy (Paris: Éditions Pedone, 2013) 39 at 40.Google Scholar

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6 Kwiecién, supra note 5 at 288, 310–11; Crawford, Emily & Rayfuse, Rosemary, “Climate Change and Statehood” in Rayfuse, Rosemary & Scott, Shirley, eds, International Law in the Era of Climate Change (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2012) 243 at 245Google Scholar; Buchanan, Allen, “The Legitimacy of International Law” in Besson, Samantha & Tasioulas, John, eds, The Philosophy of International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) 79 at 91Google Scholar, 93 [Buchanan, “The Legitimacy”]; John Herz, “Rise and Demise of the Territorial State” (1957) 9:4 World Politics 473 at 480; Inger Österdahl, “Relatively Failed: Troubled Statehood and International Law” (2003) 14 Finnish YB Int’l L 49 at 49; Ian Brownlie, “Rebirth of Statehood” in Malcolm Evans, ed, Aspects of Statehood and Institutionalism in Contemporary Europe (Dartmouth, UK: Aldershot, 1996) 5 at 6; Abhimanyu George Jain, “The 21st Century Atlantis: The International Law of Statehood and Climate Change-Induced Loss of Territory” (2014) 50 Stan J Int’l L 1 at 7–9.

7 Shaw, Malcolm, International Law, 7th edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014) at 151–53.Google Scholar See also Buchanan, Allen & Moore, Margaret, “Introduction: The Making and Unmaking of Boundaries” in Buchanan, Allen & Moore, Margaret, eds, States, Nations and Borders: The Ethics of Making Boundaries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) 1 at 1–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

8 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 248; Maxine Burkett, “The Nation Ex-Situ” in Gerrard & Wannier, supra note 1, 89 at 93 [Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ”]; Julien Jeanneney, “L’Atlantide, remarques sur la submersion de l’intégralité du territoire d’un État” (2014) 118:1 RGDIP 95 at 99; International Law Association (ILA), Committee on International Law and Sea-Level Rise (SLR), Minutes of the Closed Session (I) (Washington, 2014) at 7 (statement by the Chair), online: ILA <http://www.ila-hq.org/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/1043> [ILA SLR 2014 Closed].

9 David Caron, “Climate Change, Sea Level Rise and the Coming Uncertainty in Oceanic Boundaries: A Proposal to Avoid Conflict” in Seoung-Yong Hong & Jon M Van Dyke, eds, Maritime Boundary Disputes, Settlement Processes, and the Law of the Sea (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2009) 1 at 8; Tony George Puthucherril, “Climate Change, Sea Level Rise and Protecting Displaced Coastal Communities: Possible Solutions” (2012) 1 Global J Comp L 225 at 234; Jain, supra note 6 at 4–5.

10 International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report: Summary for Policymakers at 2, online: <http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf>.

11 Ibid at 4.

12 Davor Vidas, David Freestone & Jane McAdam, “International Law and Sea Level Rise: The New ILA Committee” (2015) 21 ILSA J Int’l & Comp L 397 at 397–98; Maas, Achim & Carius, Alexander, “Territorial Integrity and Sovereignty: Climate Change and Security in the Pacific and Beyond” in Scheffran, Jürgen et al, eds, Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict: Challenges for Societal Stability (Berlin: Springer, 2012) 651 at 653.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

13 Puthucherril, supra note 9; Clive Schofield & David Freestone, “Options to Protect Coastlines and Secure Maritime Jurisdictional Claims in the Face of Global Sea Level Rise” in Gerrard & Wannier, supra note 1, 141 at 141; Clive Schofield & I Mande Andi Arsana, “Imaginary Islands? Options to Preserve Maritime Jurisdictional Entitlements and Provide Stable Maritime Limits in the Face of Coastal Instability” (Proceedings of the Advisory Board on the Law of the Sea (ABLOS) Conference on Contentious Issues in UNCLOS – Surely Not?, Monaco, 2010) at 8–9.

14 Schofield & Arsana, supra note 13 at 2.

15 Ibid; Puthucherril, supra note 9 at 232.

16 See, eg, Alfred Soons, “The Effects of a Rising Sea Level on Maritime Limits and Boundaries” (1990) 37 Neth Int’l L Rev 207; David Caron, “When Law Makes Climate Change Worse: Rethinking the Law of Baselines in Light of a Rising Sea Level” (1990) 17 Ecology LQ 621 [Caron, “When Law”]; David Freestone, “International Law and Sea Level Rise” in R Churchill & D Freestone, eds, International Law and Global Climate Change (London: Graham & Trotman / Martinus Nijhoff, 1991) 109 [Freestone, “International Law”].

17 Jain, supra note 6 at 12, referring to, eg, Michele Klein Solomon & Koko Warner, “Protection of Persons Displaced as a Result of Climate Change: Existing Tools and Emerging Frameworks” in Gerrard & Wannier, supra note 1, 243; Alice Edwards, “Climate Change and International Refugee Law” in Rayfuse & Scott, supra note 6, 58; Catherine Redgewell, “Climate Change and International Environmental Law” in Rayfuse & Scott, supra note 6, 118; Schofield & Freestone, supra note 13; Maketo Robert et al, “Transboundary Climate Challenge to Coal: One Small Step against Dirty Energy, One Giant Leap for Climate Justice” in Gerrard Wannier, supra note 1, 589; Jacob David Werksman, “Could a Small Island Successfully Sue a Big Emitter?: Pursuing a Legal Theory and a Venue for Climate Justice” in Gerrard & Wannier, supra note 1, 409. See also Jenny Grote Stoutenburg, “Implementing a New Regime of Stable Maritime Zones to Ensure the (Economic) Survival of Small Island States Threatened by Sea-Level Rise” (2011) 26 Int’l J Mar & Coast L 263 [Stoutenburg, “Implementing”]; Schofield & Arsana, supra note 13.

18 Crawford, James, The Creation of States in International Law, 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006);Google Scholar Thomas Grant, “Defining Statehood: The Montevideo Convention and Its Discontents” (1998–99) 37 Colum J Transnat’l L 403; Jure Vidmar, “Territorial Integrity and the Law of Statehood” (2012) 44 Geo Wash Int’l L Rev 697; Österdahl, supra note 6.

19 Jain, supra note 6 at 13, referring to Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8; Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1; Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6; Maxine Burkett, “The Nation Ex-Situ: On Climate Change, Deterritorialized Nationhood and the Post-Climate Era” (2011) 2 Climate Law 345; Vidas, supra note 2; Wong, supra note 3.

20 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 249–50.

21 ILA, Committee on Baselines under the International Law of the Sea (CB), Final Report (Sofia, 2012) at 1, online: ILA <http://www.ila-hq.org/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/1028> [ILA CB], cited in Vidas, Freestone & McAdam, supra note 12 at 401.

22 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, 26 December 1933, 165 LNTS 19 [Montevideo Convention]. While the other criteria (government and capacity to enter into relations with other states) are touched upon, they are not at the core of the analysis.

23 Österdahl, supra note 6 at 87.

24 Vidas, Freestone & McAdam, supra note 12 at 400–01.

25 Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 97.

26 See, eg, Shaw, supra note 7 at 143.

27 See, eg, Jain, supra note 6 at 7.

28 Leo Gross, “The Peace of Westphalia, 1648–1948” (1948) 42 AJIL 20 at 20, cited in Wong, supra note 3 at 352. See also Daniel Bethlehem, “The End of Geography: The Changing Nature of the International System and the Challenge to International Law” (2014) 25:1 EJIL 9 at 13; Sterio, supra note 5 at 211.

29 Wong, supra note 3 at 353.

30 Throughout this article, “territoriality” is used in its general sense — that is, a link or connection to a particular territory. It is not limited to the territoriality principle of jurisdiction under international law.

31 Herz, supra note 6 at 475, 477.

32 Jain, supra note 6 at 23; Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 106; Österdahl, supra note 6 at 76.

33 Wong, supra note 3 at 365. See also Andrew Hurrell, “International Law and the Making and Unmaking of Boundaries” in Buchanan & Moore, supra note 7, 275 at 279–80.

34 Wong, supra note 3 at 365–66. See also “Yugoslavia Peace Conference Opinion No 1” (1991) 92 ILR 162 at 165 (Arbitration Commission of the Conference on Yugoslavia), cited in Wong, supra note 3 at 354–55; Vidas, supra note 2 at 81–82.

35 Nine, supra note 4 at 362. The issue of self-determination will be discussed in further detail below.

36 Jain, supra note 6 at 23. See also Nine, supra note 4 at 362; Allen Buchanan, “The Making and Unmaking of Boundaries: What Liberalism Has to Say” in Buchanan & Moore, supra note 7, 231 at 232 [Buchanan, “The Making”]; Buchanan & Moore, supra note 7 at 6; Hurrell, supra note 33 at 279.

37 Surya Sharma, Territorial Acquisition, Disputes and International Law (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1997) at 4, cited in Wong, supra note 3 at 365–66. See also Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 103.

38 Jain, supra note 6 at 22–23.

39 Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 105: “comme réalité factuelle et comme construction juridique … un cadre fonctionnel.”

40 Vidas, supra note 2 at 78.

41 Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, art 2(4) [UN Charter].

42 Bethlehem, supra note 28 at 13; Vidmar, supra note 18 at 707.

43 Shaw, supra note 7 at 479–84; Bethlehem, supra note 28 at 13–14.

44 Vidmar, supra note 18 at 699–700.

45 Schachter, supra note 5 at 9. See also Yves Petit, “Les risques environnementaux globaux et les transformations de la souveraineté” in Mouton & Cot, supra note 4, 177 at 179.

46 Brownlie, supra note 6 at 5.

47 Österdahl, supra note 6 at 68.

48 Jain, supra note 6 at 51, 24–25.

49 Ibid at 51. See also Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 116. The issues of the creation and continuity of states are discussed in greater detail in the next sub-section.

50 Österdahl, supra note 6 at 68–69.

51 See, eg, Wong, supra note 3 at 352; Grant, supra note 18 at 413.

52 See, eg, Grant, supra note 18 at 455–56; David Harris, Cases and Materials on International Law, 7th edition (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 2010) at 92, cited in Wong, supra note 3 at 353; Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 101.

53 Montevideo Convention, supra note 22, art 1.

54 Grant, supra note 18 at 413–14; Wong, supra note 3 at 354; Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 101.

55 Louis Henkin, International Law: Politics and Values (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995) at 13, cited in Jain, supra note 6 at 16.

56 Grant, supra note 18 at 453. See also Österdahl, supra note 6 at 87.

57 Grant, supra note 18 at 437–47, 450–51.

58 See further Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 73–74.

59 The necessity of recognition by other states forms the basis of the constitutive theory, one of the two theories of statehood under international law, the other being the declaratory theory, which is based solely on satisfaction of the Montevideo criteria. For more on this topic, see, eg, Shaw, supra note 7 at 150–51.

60 While there might be no express definition of state or statehood under international law, these “newly considered” elements, taken together with the classical criteria described above, as well as state practice, still form a set of tools that could be relied upon as a functional definition of statehood by a decision maker required to determine whether an entity should be considered a state.

61 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 246.

62 Grant, supra note 18 at 447.

63 Wong, supra note 3 at 351; Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 57; Jain, supra note 6 at 6, 52.

64 Crawford, supra note 18 at 52; Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion, [1975] ICJ Rep 12 at para 81.

65 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 61, 64–65; In Re Duchy of Sealand, [1978] 80 ILR 683 at 687 (Administrative Court of Cologne), cited and discussed in Michael Gagain, “Climate Change, Sea Level Rise, and Artificial Islands: Saving the Maldives’ Statehood and Maritime Claims through the ‘Constitution of the Oceans’” (2012) 23 Colo J Int’l Envt’l L & Pol’y 7 at 116–17.

66 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 90.

67 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 246; Jain, supra note 6 at 18, 21.

68 Wong, supra note 3 at 355; North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany v The Netherlands), [1969] ICJ Rep 3 at 32–33, cited in Gagain, supra note 65 at 90.

69 Wong, supra note 3 at 355. See also In Re Duchy of Sealand, supra note 65 at 685.

70 The issue of artificial structures will be discussed further in the second part of this article.

71 Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v Bahrain), Merits, Judgment, [2001] ICJ Rep 40 at para 100, cited in Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 60.

72 Island of Palmas case (or Miangas) (United States v The Netherlands), [1928] II RIAA 829 at 839, cited in Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 250.

73 See Vidas, supra note 2 at 78–79.

74 Rosemary Rayfuse, “International Law and Disappearing States: Maritime Zones and the Criteria for Statehood” (2011) 41:6 Envtl Pol’y & L 281. See also Lilian Yamamoto & Miguel Esteban, “Vanishing Island States and Sovereignty” (2010) 53 Ocean & Coastal Management 1 at 6 [Yamamoto & Esteban, “Vanishing Island”].

75 Ineta Ziemele, “States, Extinction of,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (May 2007) at para 3, online: <http://opil.ouplaw.com/home/EPIL>.

76 Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 98–99.

77 Wong, supra note 3 at 362.

78 Crawford, supra note 18 at 701; Jain, supra note 6 at 27.

79 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 246–47. See also Grant, supra note 18 at 435; Sterio, supra note 5 at 216.

80 Jain, supra note 6 at 35.

81 Montevideo Convention, supra note 22, art 6: “The recognition of a state merely signifies that the state which recognizes it accepts the personality of the other with all the rights and duties determined by international law. Recognition is unconditional and irrevocable.” Cited in Lilian Yamamoto & Miguel Esteban, Atoll Island States and International Law (Berlin: Springer, 2014) at 186 [Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island].

82 Grant, supra note 18 at 435; Gagain, supra note 65 at 91; Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 102–03; Colin Warbrick, “Recognition of States: Recent European Practice” in Evans, supra note 6, 9 at 13.

83 See, generally, eg, Jain, supra note 6; Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 202.

84 Jain, supra note 6 at 27.

85 Ibid at 9. See also Sterio, supra note 5 at 217–19, on the reasons for which statehood is important.

86 Yamamoto & Esteban have argued that since they are recognized as UN members, SIDS could not lose that membership only by losing recognition of their statehood by other states. Indeed, according to art 6 of the UN Charter, supra note 41, UN membership can only be lost if the principles of the Charter have been violated, which would not generally be the case with SIDS. See Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 202.

87 Wong, supra note 3 at 349.

88 Ibid at 349–50.

89 Jain, supra note 6 at 28, 33.

90 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 248.

91 Crawford, supra note 18 at 5, cited in Wong, supra note 3 at 352; Vidmar, supra note 18 at 702, 747; Warbrick, supra note 82 at 12; Sterio, supra note 5 at 215–16.

92 Rosemary Rayfuse, “Sea Level Rise and Maritime Zones: Preserving the Maritime Entitlements of ‘Disappearing’ States” in Gerrard & Wannier, supra note 1, 167 at 177 [Rayfuse, “Sea Level Rise”].

93 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 92.

94 David Freestone, “Can the UN Climate Regime Respond to the Challenges of Sea Level Rise?” (2013) 35 U Haw L Rev 671 at 672 [Freestone, “Can the UN”].

95 Gagain, supra note 65 at 93

96 See, eg, Gregory Wannier & Michael Gerrard, “Overview” in Gerrard & Wannier, supra note 1, 3 at 8; Freestone, “Can the UN,” supra note 94 at 674, quoting Schofield & Freestone, supra note 13 at 141.

97 Ann Powers & Christophe Stucko, “Introducing the Law of the Sea and the Legal Implications of Rising Sea Levels” in Gerrard & Wannier, supra note 1, 123 at 131; Gagain, supra note 65 at 94.

98 Powers & Stucko, supra note 97 at 132.

99 Gagain, supra note 65 at 94.

100 Maas & Carius, supra note 12 at 656.

101 Puthucherril, supra note 9 at 258.

102 See, e.g. Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 109.

103 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 3, art 121(3) [UNCLOS]. See also Yamamoto & Esteban, “Vanishing Island,” supra note 74 at 6.

104 Vidas, supra note 2 at 75.

105 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 78. See also Gagain, supra note 65 at 94–95; ILA SLR 2014 Closed, supra note 8 at 2.

106 UNCLOS, supra note 103, arts 5, 57, 76(1). See also, eg, Gagain, supra note 65 at 95–96.

107 See, eg, Caron, “When Law,” supra note 16 at 632.

108 ILA CB, supra note 21 at 31.

109 See, eg, Soons, supra note 16; Stoutenburg, “Implementing,” supra note 17 at 275; Moritaka Hayasi, “Sea Level Rise and the Law of the Sea: Legal and Policy Options” (International Symposium on Islands and Oceans, Tokyo, 22–23 January 2009) 79 at 82; Moritaka Hayasi, “Sea-level Rise and the Law of the Sea: How Can the Affected States be Better Protected” in Clive Schofield, Seokwoo Lee & Moon-Sang Kwoon, eds, The Limits of Maritime Jurisdiction (Leiden: Brill, 2013) 609 at 616–17 [Hayasi, “Affected States”]; ILA, SLR, Draft Conference Report (Johannesburg, 2016) at 12–4, online: ILA <http://www.ila-hq.org/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/1043> [ILA SLR 2016].

110 See, eg, Stoutenburg, “Implementing,” supra note 17 at 275.

111 UNCLOS, supra note 103, arts 49, 52–53.

112 Yamamoto & Esteban, “Vanishing Island,” supra note 74 at 7.

113 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 107, citing Rosemary Rayfuse, “W(h)ither Tuvalu? Oceans Governance and Disappearing States” (International Symposium on Islands and Oceans, Tokyo, 22–23 January 2009) at 101 [Rayfuse, “W(h)ither Tuvalu”].

114 ILA, SLR, Minutes of the Open Session (Washington, 2014) at 5, online: ILA <http://www.ila-hq.org/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/1043> [ILA SLR 2014 Open].

115 Puthucherril, supra note 9 at 234–35. The term “environmentally displaced persons” is preferable to expressions such as environmental, ecological or climate refugees because there is legal uncertainty as to whether people forced to move for environmental reasons, including climate change, can benefit from refugee protection. Further, the expression “environmentally displaced persons” covers both people who are suddenly displaced because of natural disasters, and people who have to move gradually or in a planned manner: see Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 288.

116 Vidas, Freestone & McAdam, supra note 12 at 405–06 (emphasis in original).

117 Ibid.

118 Commission on Human Rights, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis M. Deng, Submitted Pursuant to Commission Resolution 1997/39: Addendum: Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, UNESC, Doc E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2 (1998).

119 Ibid at 3, para 9. See also Puthucherril, supra note 9 at 246.

120 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 28 July 1951, 189 UNTS 150, art 1A(2) [Refugee Convention].

121 See, eg, BG (Fiji), [2012] NZIPT 800091; AF (Kiribati), [2013] NZIPT 800413; AD (Tuvalu), [2014] NZIT 800517–520.

122 Puthucherril, supra note 9 at 252. See also Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 234; Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 107–09.

123 AF (Kiribati), supra note 121 at para 57.

124 International Law Commission (ILC), Protection of Persons in the Event of Disasters: Texts and Titles of the Draft Articles Adopted by the Drafting Committee on First Reading, Doc A/CN.4/L.831 (2014).

125 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 76–77 (emphasis added). On the issue of cultural identity, see also ILA SLR 2016, supra note 109 at 17.

126 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171, art 1(1) [ICCPR]; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3, art 1(1) [ICESCR]. The same wording is used in the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, GA Res 1514 (XV), UNGAOR, Doc A/RES/1514(XV) (14 December 1960) at para 2. See also Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, GA Res 2625 (XXV), UNGAOR, Doc A/RES/25/2625 (24 October 1970) at principle 5. Mostly used in the context of decolonization, the concept of self-determination, however, has been applied outside this traditional context. See, eg, Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, Advisory Opinion, [2010] ICJ Rep 403 at para 79; Daniel Thürer & Thomas Burri, “Self-Determination,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (December 2008) at para 34.

127 See, generally, Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 176.

128 Jörgen Ödalen, “Underwater Self-determination: Sea-level Rise and Deterritorialised Small Island States” (2014) 17:2 Ethics, Policy & Environment 225 at 233. See also Nine, supra note 4 at 362.

129 Ödalen, supra note 128 at 226, 232.

130 Ibid at 229–30.

131 Nine, supra note 4 at 366.

132 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 80. See also ILC, Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, UN Doc A/56/83 (3 August 2001), art 2; Jain, supra note 6 at 41–42.

133 IPCC, supra note 10 at 2, 4.

134 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 9 May 1992, 1771 UNTS 107, art 4 [UNFCCC].

135 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 11 December 1997, 2303 UNTS 162, arts 3–4, 6, 12, 17 [Kyoto Protocol]. The targets were subsequently amended at the Doha Conference in 2012 for the second commitment period (2013–20), but the amendments are not yet into force (as of May 2016).

136 Adoption of the Paris Agreement, UNFCCC, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2015/L.9 (12 December 2015), arts 2–3, 4(9) [Paris Agreement]. The Paris Agreement will enter into force when fifty-five states representing 55 percent of global emissions will have ratified or acceded to the Agreement. It will be open for signature from 22 April 2016 to 21 April 2017. See Daniel Bodansky, “Reflections on the Paris Conference” (15 December 2015), online: Opinio Juris <http://opiniojuris.org/2015/12/15/reflections-on-the-paris-conference/>.

137 Eg, the United States is not a party to the Kyoto Protocol; China, while a party to the protocol, is not bound by the reduction targets; and Canada withdrew from the protocol in 2011, before the start of the second commitment period.

138 See, eg, Corinne Lepage & Christian Huglo, “Commentaire iconoclaste (?) de ‘l’Accord de Paris’” (2016) 41:1 Revue juridique de l’environnement 9; Benoît Mayer, “Enjeux et résultats de la COP21” (2016) 41:1 Revue juridique de l’environnement 13; Sophie Lavallée, “L’Accord de Paris: trois questions passées sous silence” (23 December 2015), online: Policy Options Politiques <http://policyoptions.irpp.org/fr/magazines/december-2015/laccord-de-paris-troisquestions-passees-sous-silence/>.

139 Trail Smelter Case (United States v Canada), [1938/1941] III RIAA 1905 at 1963: “A state owes at all times a duty to protect against injurious acts by individuals from within its jurisdiction” and “no State has the right to use or permit the use of its territory in such a manner as to cause injury by fumes in or to the territory of another … when the case is of serious consequence” (at 1965); Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, UN Doc A/Conf.48/14/Rev. 1 (1973), Principle 21 (Stockholm Declaration): “States have … the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.” See also Rio Declaration on Environmental and Development, UN Doc A/CONF.151/26 (vol I) (1992), Principle 2 (Rio Declaration).

140 ILC, Articles on Prevention of Transboundary Harm from Hazardous Activities, UN Doc A/56/10 (2001), art 3: “The State of origin shall take all appropriate measures to prevent significant transboundary harm or at any event to minimize the risk thereof.” See also ILA, Committee on the Legal Principles Relating to Climate Change, ILA Legal Principles Relating to Climate Change (Washington, 2014), online: ILA <http://www.ila-hq.org/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/1029/member/1>. Draft art 7A(1) deals with the obligation of prevention, putting the emphasis on climate change. These drafts articles have been raised as relevant for the work of the ILA Committee on Sea Level Rise. See ILA SLR 2014 Open, supra note 114 at 5.

141 Sands, Philippe & Peel, Jacqueline, Principles of International Environmental Law, 3rd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012) at 242–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

142 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 80–81; Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 276.

143 Jain, supra note 6 at 41–42.

144 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 75.

145 Ibid.

146 Ibid at 78.

147 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA Res 217 (III), UNGAOR, 3d Sess Supp No 13, UN Doc A/810 (1948), arts 3, 25(1) [UDHR]; ICCPR, supra note 126, arts 6(1), 9(1); ICESCR, supra note 126, art 11(1). See, eg, Maxine Burkett, “A Justice Paradox: On Climate Change, Small Island Developing States, and the Quest for Effective Legal Remedy” (2013) 35 U Haw L Rev 633 at 646–47 [Burkett, “Justice Paradox”]; Human Rights and Climate Change, UNHCR, UN Doc A/HRC/RES/26/27 (2014) at para 1 and preamble; Human Rights and Climate Change, UNHCR, UN Doc A/HRC/RES/18/22 (2011) at para 1; ILA SLR 2016, supra note 109 at 16–17.

148 UDHR, supra note 147, art 15(1). Lisa Friedman, “If a Country Sinks beneath the Sea, Is It Still a Country?” New York Times (23 August 2010), online: New York Times <http://www.nytimes.com/cwire/2010/08/23/23climatewire-if-a-country-sinks-beneath-the-sea-is-it-sti-70169.html?pagewanted=all>.

149 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 79 (emphasis added).

150 Jain, supra note 6 at 41–42.

151 Puthucherril, supra note 9 at 238.

152 IPCC, supra note 10 at 2. It must however be underlined that climate change and sea-level rise are not only triggered by human activities but also come from natural causes.

153 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 84–85.

154 Jain, supra note 6 at 42.

155 Burkett, “Justice Paradox,” supra note 147 at 643. See also Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 59.

156 See, eg, Lawrence Hurley, “Island Nation Girds for Legal Battle against Industrial Emissions,” New York Times (28 September 2011), online: New York Times <http://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2011/09/28/28greenwire-island-nation-girds-for-legal-battle-against-i-60949.html>.

157 Burkett, “Justice Paradox,” supra note 147 at 635.

158 Wong, supra note 3 at 389.

159 Burkett, “Justice Paradox,” supra note 147 at 634; Hayasi, “Affected States,” supra note 109 at 620; Powers & Stucko, supra note 97 at 139–40; Rayfuse, “Sea Level Rise,” supra note 92 at 178. The issue of legitimacy will be discussed further in the third part of this article.

160 Burkett, “Justice Paradox,” supra note 147 at 661.

161 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 2 February 1971, 996 UNTS 245; Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 23 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151; Convention on Biological Diversity, 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79. See Burkett, “Justice Paradox,” supra note 147 at 642; Wannier & Gerrard, supra note 96 at 12; ILA SLR 2014 Closed, supra note 8 at 4–5.

162 Burkett, “Justice Paradox,” supra note 147 at 652–53.

163 ILA SLR 2016, supra note 109 at 8.

164 Vidas, supra note 2 at 83.

165 Gross, supra note 28 at 378, cited in Wong, supra note 3 at 352.

166 The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention, Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Doc FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1 (2011) at paras 11–20.

167 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 249–50; Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 117–19.

168 The expression “ex-situ nation” has also been used in the literature. See, eg, Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8.

169 ILA SLR 2014 Closed, supra note 8 at 5; ILA SLR 2016, supra note 109 at 20; Yamamoto & Esteban, “Vanishing Island,” supra note 74 at 3.

170 See, eg, Gagain, supra note 65 at 113–14.

171 Schofield & Freestone, supra note 13 at 155; Rayfuse, “Sea Level Rise,” supra note 92 at 176.

172 Schofield & Freestone, supra note 13 at 155–56; Yamamoto & Esteban, “Vanishing Island,” supra note 74 at 4–6; “Summary of Recommendations of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in Regard to the Submission Made by Japan on 12 November 2008” at paras 6, 15–20, <http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/jpn08/com_sumrec_jpn_fin.pdf>.

173 Schofield & Freestone, supra note 13 at 151.

174 Ibid at 152.

175 Schofield & Arsana, supra note 13 at 10.

176 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 62 (emphasis in original). See also Schofield & Freestone, supra note 13 at 157; Jain, supra note 6 at 48.

177 Soons, supra note 16 at 222–23; Schofield & Freestone, supra note 13 at 160; Rayfuse, “Sea Level Rise,” supra note 92 at 175–76.

178 Gagain, supra note 65 at 101.

179 UNCLOS, supra note 103, art 60(8). See also Wong, supra note 3 at 384.

180 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 62.

181 Ibid at 63.

182 Wong, supra note 3 at 384.

183 In Re Duchy of Sealand, supra note 65 at 685. Indeed, the Court held that a British Second World War platform attached to the seabed off the coast of Great Britain did not fulfil the requirement of territory. However, it must be underlined that this case dealt with an artificial installation.

184 Gagain, supra note 65 at 107.

185 Ibid at 111.

186 Soons, supra note 16 at 231. See also Jain, supra note 6 at 48.

187 Hayasi, “Affected States,” supra note 109 at 615; Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 121–23.

188 Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 187.

189 Jain, supra note 6 at 48.

190 Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 197–98, 200; Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 61.

191 Maas & Carius, supra note 12 at 659; Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 188; Convention between the United States and Denmark. Cession of the West Indies, 25 January 1917, 39 US Stat 1706: online: <http://www.doi.gov/oia/about/upload/vitreaty.pdf>.

192 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 61.

193 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 249–50.

194 Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 198, 200.

195 Rosemary Rayfuse “International Law and Disappearing States: Utilizing Maritime Entitlements to Overcome the Statehood Dilemma” (2010) University of New South Wales Faculty of Law Research Paper no 2010-52 at 9. See also Hayasi, “Affected States,” supra note 109 at 615; Soons, supra note 16 at 230; Rayfuse, “Sea Level Rise,” supra note 92 at 178.

196 Maritime Boundary in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v Norway), Advisory Opinion, [1993] ICJ Rep 38 at paras 46, 48, 50.

197 Rayfuse, “Sea Level Rise,” supra note 92 at 179.

198 Schofield & Freestone, supra note 13 at 162.

199 See, eg, Wong, supra note 3 at 383.

200 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 249–50; Rayfuse, “Sea-Level Rise,” supra note 92 at 178; Jain, supra note 6 at 48.

201 Yamamoto & Esteban, “Vanishing Island,” supra note 74 at 189.

202 Puthucherril, supra note 9 at 255.

203 Rayfuse, “W(h)ither Tuvalu,” supra note 113.

204 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ” supra note 8 at 90; Wong, supra note 3 at 385; Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 85–86; Jain, supra note 6 at 49.

205 Ödalen, supra note 128 at 230.

206 Reference could be made, eg, to the separate opinion of Judge Ago in the Advisory Opinion on the Agreement between the World Health Organization and Egypt, underlining that international organizations, even if they have a different international legal capacity than states, are subjects of international law even if they lack a territorial basis. See Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, [1980] ICJ Rep 73 at 155. See also Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 252.

207 See, eg 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, 4 December 1995, 2167 UNTS 3, art 2(2)(b); UNCLOS, supra note 103, art 291, art 20(2) of Annex VI, art 13 of Annex XIII. See also Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 253.

208 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 252–53; Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 203.

209 See, eg, Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 203; Wong, supra note 3 at 385; Maas & Carius, supra note 12 at 659.

210 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 251.

211 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 85; Maas & Carius, supra note 12 at 659.

212 Wong, supra note 3 at 385. See also Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 128.

213 Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 211.

214 Wong, supra note 3 at 385–86.

215 Jain, supra note 6 at 49–51.

216 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 90.

217 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 68. See also Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 126.

218 Yamamoto & Esteban, “Vanishing Island,” supra note 74 at 7.

219 Crawford & Rayfuse, supra note 6 at 253.

220 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 69.

221 See, eg, Columbia Law School, Consolidated Notes from Threatened Island Nations: Legal Implications of Rising Seas and a Changing Climate, (New York: Center for Climate Change Law, Columbia Law School, 2011) at 10, 14, online: Columbia Law School <http://web.law.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/microsites/climate-change/files/Past- Conferences-and-Events/Threatened%20Island%20Nations%20-%20Compiled%20Notes.pdf>; Wong, supra note 3 at 368; Maas & Carius, supra note 12 at 658.

222 Yamamoto & Esteban, “Vanishing Island,” supra note 74 at 7.

223 Ibid.

224 The UN Charter trusteeship regime (UN Charter, supra note 41, ch XIII), poses two main obstacles. First, a UN member state cannot be put under the supervision of the Council. Second, the state responsible for the supervision should be the state in charge of the administration of the territory. The majority of SIDS, being UN member states under the supervision of no other state, would first have to withdraw from the UN for the UN trusteeship regime to apply. However, such withdrawal would undermine the benefits SIDS obtain from being part of multilateral organizations such as the UN, the main one being the preservation of their statehood, which is strengthened by the recognition of other states. See Wong, supra note 3 at 386–87; Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 109.

225 UN Charter, supra note 41, art 88; Wong, supra note 3 at 386.

226 Wannier & Gerrard, supra note 96 at 7. See also Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 206–08.

227 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 108. See also Wannier & Gerrard, supra note 96 at 7.

228 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 109–14.

229 Wannier & Gerrard, supra note 96 at 6.

230 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 118.

231 Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 207.

232 Wong, supra note 3 at 386.

233 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 113.

234 Ibid at 114.

235 Ibid at 106; Rayfuse, “Sea Level Rise,” supra note 92 at 180.

236 Bethlehem, supra note 28 at 24.

237 Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 113, 115–16.

238 Thomas Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the Twenty-First Century (London: Allen Lane, 2005) at 9, 11, 19.

239 Ibid at 10.

240 Ibid at 9.

241 Schachter, supra note 5 at 8. See also Pierré-Caps, supra note 4 at 39.

242 Schachter, supra note 5 at 12–13.

243 Bethlehem, supra note 28 at 15.

244 Hurrell, supra note 33 at 278, 281. See also Benedict Kingsbury, “People and Boundaries: An ‘Internationalized Public Law’ Approach” in Buchanan & Moore, supra note 7, 298 at 299–302.

245 Sterio, supra note 5 at 219. See, generally, Tullio Treves, “General Course: The Expansion of International Law” (Lecture delivered at The Hague Academy of International Law, 6–24 July 2015).

246 Friedman, supra note 238 at 10 (emphasis in original).

247 Hurrell, supra note 33 at 285. See also Schachter, supra note 5 at 11.

248 Petit, supra note 45 at 184.

249 See, generally, Antônio Cançado Trindade, “Quelques réflexions sur l’humanité comme sujet du droit international” in Denis Alland et al, eds, Unité et diversité du droit international: Écrits en l’honneur du Professeur Pierre-Marie Dupuy (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2014) 157.

250 Hurrell, supra note 33 at 285. See also Schachter, supra note 5 at 11.

251 See generally Boaventura De Sousa Santos, “Law: A Map of Misreadings: Towards a Post-Modern Conception of Law” (1987) 14:3 J L & Soc’y 279.

252 Bethlehem, supra note 28 at 17. See also Kwiecién, supra note 5 at 287; Vidas, supra note 2 at 73; Petit, supra note 45 at 178, 190; Buchanan, “The Making,” supra note 36 at 236; Schachter, supra note 5 at 7.

253 Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 121.

254 Hurrell, supra note 33 at 276, 280. See also Buchanan, “The Making,” supra note 36 at 236.

255 Hurrell, supra note 33 at 275.

256 Buchanan, “The Making,” supra note 36 at 244; Cançado Trindade, supra note 249 at 172.

257 Buchanan, Allen & Keohane, Robert, “The Legitimacy of Global Governance Institutions” in Wolfrum, Rüdiger & Röben, Volker, eds, Legitimacy in International Law (Berlin: Springer 2008) 25 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, cited in Rüdiger Wolfrum, “Legitimacy in International Law,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (November 2006) at paras 6–8.

258 Buchanan, “The Legitimacy,” supra note 6 at 82.

259 This last approach is controversial. For example, and briefly, the intervention of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in Kosovo, while not legitimate from the source-oriented and procedure-oriented perspective because it was not authorized by the UN Security Council, has been argued to be legitimate from a result-oriented perspective, as it aimed at protecting human rights.

260 See, eg, Jain, supra note 6 at 10; Burkett, “Justice Paradox,” supra note 147 at 659; Petit, supra note 45 at 177, 180.

261 Jain, supra note 6 at 11.

262 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 106–07.

263 See, eg, Buchanan, “The Legitimacy,” supra note 6 at 87.

264 Kwiecién, supra note 5 at 286.

265 Jochen von Bernstorff & Ingo Venzke, “Ethos, Ethics, and Morality in International Relations,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (August 2011) at paras 13, 28; Cançado Trindade, supra note 249 at 161, 164.

266 See generally Onuma Yasuaki, “The Need for an Intercivilizational Approach to Evaluating Human Rights” (1997) 1:10 Human Rights Dialogue, online: Carnegie Council, <http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/publications/archive/dialogue/1_10/articles/574.html>.

267 Pierré-Caps, supra note 4 at 41; Cançado Trindade, supra note 249 at 166.

268 Bethlehem, supra note 28 at 18.

269 Vidas, supra note 2 at 73; Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 95–96, 100.

270 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 91.

271 This subsection is mostly based on the argumentation in Burkett, supra note 8.

272 Buchanan & Moore, supra note 7 at 7.

273 Buchanan, “The Making,” supra note 36 at 231 (emphasis in original).

274 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 102. The term “diaspora” is, throughout this article, understood as the physical dispersion of the people of a same nation or sharing the same culture. We acknowledge the existence of other meanings of the term, in particular, the one referring to a diaspora as a “way of living,” not linked to any ethnic and/or cultural belonging. However, this alternative meaning goes beyond the scope of this article, which focuses on a meaning of diaspora that is linked to “deterritorialized” nationalism or “deterritorialized” communal belonging.

275 Michelle McKinley, “Conviviality, Cosmopolitan Citizenship, and Hospitality” (2009) 5 Unbound 55 at 81, cited in Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 101.

276 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 104.

277 See generally the writings of Emmanuel Kant, Jacques Derrida, and, most recently, Kwame Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (London: Penguin, 2007).

278 James, Paul, “Political Philosophies of the Global: A Critical Overview” in James, Paul, ed, Globalization and Politics, Volume IV: Political Philosophies of the Global (London: Sage, 2014) vii at x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

279 Pierré-Caps, supra note 4 at 50. See also Yasuaki, supra note 266.

280 McKinley, supra note 275 at 68, cited in Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 101. It is worth noting that, while we believe both the differential equality principle and the notion of solidarity as a moral obligation can be used to describe cosmopolitanism, they represent two approaches to legitimacy and morality. Indeed, as discussed earlier in this article, the former can be linked to inter-civilizationalism while the latter is based on a more Western-oriented system of shared common values.

281 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 100.

282 Ibid at 99.

283 Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 127–28.

284 Schachter, supra note 5 at 19.

285 Krisch, supra note 5 at 3.

286 Karl-Heinz Ladeur, “Governance, Theory of,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (September 2010) at para 13.

287 Donald Rothwell & Tim Stephens, The International Law of the Sea (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2010) at 462. See also Ladeur, supra note 286 at para 5.

288 Ladeur, supra note 286 at para 14.

289 Kwiecién, supra note 5 at 281, 303–04.

290 Two other meanings of global governance have also been underlined: “[I]t may also imply that the role of private self-organization, as opposed to traditional public organization of decision-making, has become a fundamental challenge of public international law, while the other terminology (‘international governance’) seems to try to reduce the new hybrid forms of governance to a supplementary role in order to preserve the traditional centrality of the concept of State and government in international relations and international law.” Ladeur, supra note 286 at para 18.

291 James, supra note 278 at xi.

292 Ladeur, supra note 286 at para 5.

293 JHH Weiler, “The Geology of International Law: Governance, Democracy and Legitimacy” (2004) 64 Heidelberg J Int’l L 547 at 547, 556, cited in Kwiecién, supra note 5 at 285. See also Krisch, supra note 5 at 28.

294 Krisch, supra note 5 at 36; Kwiecién, supra note 5 at 303; Petit, supra note 45 at 193.

295 Non-binding, soft law mechanisms can be more appropriate when addressing new legal issues to which traditional mechanisms are not yet ready to be applied. See Treves, supra note 245; Yamamoto & Esteban, Atoll Island, supra note 81 at 223; Petit, supra note 45 at 192.

296 Krisch, supra note 5 at 16.

297 Ibid at 5.

298 Kwiecién, supra note 5 at 309.

299 Ibid at 303.

300 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 91.

301 Francisco Francioni, “Equity in International Law,” Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (June 2013) at paras 1, 3, 10. The second refers to the possibility for the International Court of Justice to decide cases on an ex æquo et bono basis. See Statute of the International Court of Justice, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XV1, art 38(2).

302 Francioni, supra note 301 at para 10.

303 Ibid at paras 7, 9.

304 Ibid at para 29.

305 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 95.

306 Ibid at 105–06.

307 Davor Vidas & Peter Johan Schei, “The World Ocean in Globalization: Challenges and Responses for the Anthropocen Epoch” in Davor Vidas & Peter Johan Schei, eds, The World Ocean in Globalization. Climate Change, Sustainable Fisheries, Biodiversity, Shipping, Regional Issues (Leiden: Brill and Martinus Nijhoff, 2011) 3 at 6–7 (emphasis in original).

308 See, eg, Thürer & Burri, supra note 126 at para 15; Schachter, supra note 5 at 15.

309 See, eg, Pierré-Caps, supra note 4 at 44.

310 Nine, supra note 4 at 359, 362, 366.

311 Wannier & Gerrard, supra note 96 at 7.

312 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 58–59, 66, 85; Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 123.

313 Stoutenburg, “When Do,” supra note 1 at 87.

314 Jain, supra note 6 at 46.

315 Burkett, “Nation Ex-Situ,” supra note 8 at 91.

316 Jain, supra note 6 at 44.

317 Hurrell, supra note 33 at 287; Buchanan, “The Making,” supra note 36 at 236.

318 Treves, supra note 245.

319 See, eg, Petit, supra note 45 at 191.

320 Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 115: “des mutations juridiques sur un territoire plutôt que des mutations subies par le territoire” (emphasis in original).

321 Ibid at 113.

322 See, generally, Robert Scott, “Chaos Theory and the Justice Paradox” (1993) 35:1 Wm & Mary L Rev 329, cited in Burkett, “Justice Paradox,” supra note 147 at 636.

323 Kingsbury, supra note 244 at 298; Jeanneney, supra note 8 at 109.

324 Cançado Trindade, supra note 249 at 157; Schachter, supra note 5 at 22–23; Petit, supra note 45 at 185.

325 Buchanan & Moore, supra note 7 at 8; Pierré-Caps, supra note 4 at 39: “il [l’État-nation] est la structure juridique de prédilection des nouveaux États, alors même que les États les plus anciens s’efforcent de l’adapter … sans rien concéder, pour autant, de ses principes.”

326 Maas & Carius, supra note 12 at 660.

327 ILA CB, supra note 21 at 2, cited in Vidas, Freestone & McAdam, supra note 12 at 401.

328 Serge Sur, “Cours général: La créativité du droit international” (lecture delivered at The Hague Academy of International Law, 9–27 July 2012), reprinted in (2012) 363 Rec des Cours 9 at 98: “Transformation n’est pas métamorphose.”