Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-18T02:00:49.809Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Utopia without Apology: Form and Imagination in the Work of Ronald St. John Macdonald

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2016

Karen Knop
Get access

Summary

The word “utopia” is a pun on eu topos (a good place) and ou topos (no place). While utopia in the sense of eu topos refers to an ideal society and its realization, utopia in the sense of ou topos emphasizes a mode of narrative rather than a political goal. Traditionally, the utopian form is a traveller’s account of a visit to an imaginary country where the journey is either to a far-off land or to the distant future. This article offers an appreciation of Ronald St. John Macdonald as a practitioner, presenter, and promoter of the utopian form in international law. Beyond the ability of a particular eu-topia to confront us with a complete package of ideas for international law that would otherwise remain unimagined, ou-topia generally encourages comprehensive and radical thinking about international law’s future and perhaps even jolts us into a heightened consciousness of our creativity and potential for change. The article also touches on the corresponding disadvantages of utopias and speculates that Macdonald reconciles the advantages and disadvantages partly through the fact that the power of the utopian form is available even to those who have been historically and unjustly excluded from international law.

Sommaire

Sommaire

Le mot “utopie” est un jeu d’esprit entre eu topos (un endroit agréable) et ou topos (un endroit fictif ). Alors que le mot utopie dans le sens de eu topos fait référence à la société idéale et à sa réalisation, le mot utopie dans le sens de ou topos décrit davantage un mode narratif qu’un but politique. Traditionnellement, l’utopie est le récit que fait un voyageur de sa visite à un pays imaginaire, soit vers une terre lointaine soit dans un avenir éloigné. Cet article examine l’oeuvre de Ronald St. John Macdonald en tant que praticien, conférencier et promoteur d’une forme utopique de droit international. Si une eu-topie particulière peut nous proposer toute une série d’idées sur le droit international que nous pourrions difWcilement imaginer autrement, en général l’ou-topie encourage une analyse approfondie et radicale concernant l’avenir du droit international qui peut même stimuler une prise de conscience plus grande de notre créativité et des possibilités de changement. L’article souligne aussi les désavantages propres à ces utopies et spécule que Macdonald réconcilie les avantages et les désavantages en partie du fait que le pouvoir de l’utopie est accessible même aux personnes qui historiquement ont été injustement exclues du droit international.

Type
Feature: The Macdonald Symposium Papers
Information
Canadian Yearbook of International Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international , Volume 40 , 2003 , pp. 287 - 308
Copyright
Copyright © The Canadian Council on International Law / Conseil Canadien de Droit International, representing the Board of Editors, Canadian Yearbook of International Law / Comité de Rédaction, Annuaire Canadien de Droit International 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 See Koskenniemi, Martti, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument (Helsinki: Finnish Lawyers’ Publishing, 1989).Google Scholar See also Kennedy, David, International Legal Structures (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1987).Google Scholar

2 More, Thomas, Utopia: Latin Text and English Translation, translated by Adams, Robert M., edited by Logan, George M., Adams, Robert M., and Miller, Clarence H. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).Google Scholar

3 Ibid. at 31, n. 2.

4 Frye, Northrop, “Varieties of Literary Utopias” in Manuel, Frank E., ed., Utopias and Utopian Thought (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966) 25 at 31.Google Scholar

5 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, Morris, Gerald L., and Johnston, Douglas M., “International Law and Society in the Year 2000” (1973) 51 Can. Bar Rev. 316.Google Scholar

6 On thinking outside the box in international law, compare Kennedy, David, “When Renewal Repeats: Thinking against the Box” (2000) 32 N.Y.U. J. Int’l L. & Pol. 335 at 457–500 Google Scholar (discussing the New Approaches to International Law project).

7 See, for example, Bartkowski, Frances, Feminist Utopias (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1989)Google Scholar; Rosinsky, Natalie M., Feminist Futures: Contemporary Women’s Speculative Fiction (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1984).Google Scholar

8 See, for example, Bammer, Angelika, Partial Visions: Feminism and Utopianism in the 1970s (New York: Routledge, 1991)Google Scholar; Patai, Daphne, “Beyond Defensiveness: Feminist Research Strategies” in Barr, Marleen and Smith, Nicholas D., eds., Women and Utopia: Critical Interpretations (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1983) 148.Google Scholar In the context of feminist legal theory, see Lacey, Nicola, “Normative Reconstruction in Socio-Legal Theory” in Lacey, Nicola, Unspeakable Subjects: Feminist Essays in Legal and Social Theory (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1998) 221.Google Scholar

9 Allott, Philip, Eunomia: New Order for a New World, paperback edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Book Review of Eunomia: New Order for a New World by Philip Allott” (1991) 70 Can. Bar Rev. 822 at 823.Google Scholar

11 Manuel, Frank E., “Introduction” in Manuel, Frank E., ed., Utopias and Utopian Thought (Boston: Houghton Miflin, 1966) vii at viii.Google Scholar

12 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Solidarity in the Practice and Discourse of Public International Law” (1996) 8 Pace Int’l L. Rev. 259 Google Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “The Principle of Solidarity in Public International Law” in Dominicé, Christian, Patry, Robert, and Reymond, Claude, eds., Etudes de droit international en l’honneur de Pierre Lalive (Bâle: Helbing and Lichtenhahn, 1993) 275.Google Scholar

13 See Friedmann, Wolfgang, The Changing Structure of International Law (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964) at 60–71.Google Scholar On the Columbia school of thought in international law, see Koskenniemi, Martti, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law, 1870–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001 ) at 477–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Kennedy, supra note 6 at 380–87.

14 Macdonald, “Solidarity in Practice and Discourse,” supra note 12.

15 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, Johnston, Douglas M., and Morris, Gerald L., eds., The International Law and Policy of Human Welfare (Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands: Sijthoff and Noordhoff, 1978)Google Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, Johnston, Douglas M., and Morris, Gerald L., “International Law of Human Welfare: Concept, Experience, and Priorities” in Macdonald, Ronald St. John, Johnston, Douglas M., and Morris, Gerald L., eds., The International Law and Policy of Human Welfare (Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands: Sijthoff and Noordhoff, 1978) 3.Google Scholar

16 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “The United Nations and the Promotion of Human Rights” in Macdonald, , Johnston, , and Morris, , Human Welfare, supra note 15 at 203.Google Scholar

17 See, for example, Scott, Craig, “Ronald St. John Macdonald and International Legal Education” (2002) 4 Int’l Law Forum 215 at 216–17.Google Scholar

18 These authors include Alfred Verdross, Hermann Mosler, Christian Tomuschat, and Bardo Fassbender. See generally Fassbender, Bardo, “The United Nation Charter as Constitution of the International Community” (1998) 36 Colum. J. Transnat’l L. 529.Google Scholar While at the University of Toronto in the early 1990s, Macdonald taught a course called “The International Community as a Legal Community,” which the calendar describes as follows:

This seminar is devoted to an intensive examination and evaluation of the fundamental norms of contemporary international law. In particular, it will explore the extent to which a hierarchy of norms exists in international law and the interrelationship between superior and subordinate principles and rules. The impact of the Covenant of the League of Nations, the Charter of the United Nations, the doctrine of jus cogens, and the erga omnes doctrine will be examined with a view to identifying and analyzing the significance of basic constitutional features of the international legal order.

Faculty of Law, University of Toronto, “Calendar, 1990–91 ” at 42–43; Faculty of Law, University of Toronto, “Calendar, 1991–92 ” at 46; Faculty of Law, University of Toronto, “Calendar, 1992–93” at 47; Faculty of Law, University of Toronto, “Calendar, 1993–94” at 43. Towards a Constitutional International Law, Craig Scott’s choice of title for his forthcoming edited collection of Macdonald’s work, also signals Macdonald’s interest in this quality of international law.

19 Charter of the United Nations, June 26, 1945, Can. T.S. 1945 No. 7 (in force October 24, 1945). Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “The United Nations Charter: Constitution or Contract?” in Macdonald, Ronald St. John and Johnston, Douglas M., eds., The Structure and Process of International Law: Essays in Legal Philosophy, Doctrine, and Theory (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983) 889 Google Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Reflections on the Charter of the United Nations” in Jeke-witz, Jürgen et al., eds., Des Menschen Recht zwischen Freiheit und Verantwortung: Festschrift für Karl Josef Partsch zum 75. Geburtstag (Berlin: Duncker and Humblot, 1989) 29.Google Scholar

20 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Fundamental Norms in Contemporary International Law” (1987) 25 Can. Y.B. Int’l Law 115.Google Scholar

21 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Public International Law Problems Arising in Canadian Courts” (1956) 11 U.T.L.J. 224 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “International Treaty Law and the Domestic Law of Canada” (1975) 2 Dal. L.J. 307 Google Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “The Relationship between International Law and Domestic Law in Canada” in Macdonald, Ronald St. John, Morris, Gerald L., and Johnston, Douglas M., eds., Canadian Perspectives on International Law and Organization (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974) 88.Google Scholar

22 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Interim Measures in International Law, with Special Reference to the European System for the Protection of Human Rights” (1992) 52 Heidelberg J. Int’l L. 703.Google Scholar

23 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “The Margin of Appreciation” in Macdonald, Ronald St. John, Matscher, Franz, and Petzold, Herbert, eds., The European System for the Protection of Human Rights (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1993) 83 Google Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “The Margin of Appreciation in the Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights” in Clapham, Andrew and Emmert, Frank, eds., Collected Courses of the Academy of European Law: 1990, The Protection of Human Rights in Europe, vol. 1 , book 2 (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1992) 95 Google Scholar; and Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “The Margin of Appreciation in the Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights” in Le droit international à l’heure de sa codification: études en l’honneur de Roberto Ago: les differends entre les états et la résponsabilité, tome 3 (Milan: Giuffrè, 1987) 187.Google Scholar On European human rights law generally, see Macdonald, Ronald St. John, Matscher, Franz, and Petzold, Herbert, eds., The European System for the Protection of Human Rights (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1993).Google Scholar

24 Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, Canadian Perspectives, supra note 21; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, Morris, Gerald L., and Johnston, Douglas M., “Canadian Approaches to International Law” in Macdonald, , Morris, , and Johnston, , Canadian Perspectives, supra note 21 at 940 Google Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Highlights of CCIL Activities (1972–76)” in Canadian Council on International Law, eds., Compendium: The First Twenty-Five Years (Ottawa: Canadian Council on International Law, 1998) 106 at 106–7Google Scholar; Scott, Craig, “1972: New Approaches to International Law” in Canadian Council on International Law, supra note 24 at 128, 129.Google Scholar

25 See Head, Ivan L. and Trudeau, Pierre Elliot, The Canadian Way: Shaping Canada’s Foreign Policy 1968–1984 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1995).Google Scholar

26 See, for example, Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Maxwell Cohen at Eighty: International Lawyer, Educator, and Judge#x201D; (1989) 27 Can. YB. Int’l Law 3 at 16–22.Google Scholar

27 See, for example, Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Leadership in Law: John P. Humphrey and the Development of the International Law of Human Rights” (1991) 29 Can. Y.B. Int’l Law 3 at 15–17, 23–32, 82–90.Google Scholar

28 Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “International Law and Society,” supra note 5; Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, Canadian Perspectives, supra note 21; Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “Canadian Approaches,” supra note 24; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, Morris, Gerald L., and Johnston, Douglas M., “The New Lawyer in a Transnational World” (1975) 25 U.T.L.J. 343 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Macdonald, Johnston, and Morris, eds., Human Welfare, supra note 15; Macdonald, Johnston, and Morris, “International Law of Human Welfare,” supra note 15; Macdonald, Ronald St. John and Johnston, Douglas M., eds., The Structure and Process of International Law: Essays in Legal Philosophy, Doctrine, and Theory (The Hague: Marti-nus Nijhoff, 1983)Google Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John and Johnston, Douglas M., “International Legal Theory: New Frontiers of the Discipline” in Macdonald, Ronald St. John and Johnston, Douglas M., eds., The Structure and Process of International Law: Essays in Legal Philosophy, Doctrine, and Theory (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983) 1.Google Scholar

29 Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “International Law and Society,” supra note 5.

30 Castel, J.-G., ed., “The Law and the Legal Profession in the Twenty-First Century” (1973) 51(1, 2) Can. Bar Rev. 1.Google Scholar

31 Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “International Law and Society,” supra note 5 at 317.

32 Orwell, George, Nineteen Eighty-Four (London: Penguin Books, 1989).Google Scholar The importance of a date that balances the near and distant future is nicely illus-trated by the fact that as the writing of Orwell’s novel dragged on, he changed its settting from 1980 to 1982 and, eventually, from 1982 to 1984. Peter Davison, “A Note on the Text” in Orwell, ibid. at v.

33 Quoted in de Jouvenel, Bertrand, “Utopia for Practical Purposes” in Manuel, Frank E., ed., Utopias and Utopian Thought (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966) 219 at 219.Google Scholar

34 While the article’s principal narrative is the modus vivendi between technology and democracy in the international legal system of the future, the article also describes other changes. For a comprehensive treatment, see Chi Carmody, “A Look Back at Looking Forward: Ronald St. John Macdonald and the Future of International Law” in this volume of the Yearbook.

35 Slaughter, Anne-Marie, “The Real New World Order” (1997) 76(5) Foreign Affairs 183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

36 Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “International Law and Society,” supra note 5 at 316.

37 Ibid. at 317.

38 While Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston predicted the power of information technology in the year 2000, they did not anticipate its democratization through the personal computer revolution and the Internet.

39 Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “International Law and Society,” supra note 5 at 321.

40 Ibid.

41 Ibid. at 322.

42 Ibid. at 323.

43 Ibid. at 329–30.

44 See Frye, supra note 4 at 26. See also Jameson, Fredric, “Of Islands and Trenches: Naturalization and the Production of Utopian Discourse” (1977) 7(2) Diacritics 2 at 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar (referring to “tours and interminable guide-book explanations” and “static descriptions of institutions and geographical and architectural layouts” as typical of utopian texts).

45 Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “International Law and Society,” supra note 5 at 323–24.

46 See Frye, supra note 4 at 27.

47 Although the article makes the case for the right of every individual to equal living space, it does so to illustrate how the issue of population and living space would arise and be negotiated in the complex world ordering system of the twenty-first century. Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “International Law and Society,” supra note 5 at 325.

48 Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “New Lawyer,” supra note 28; Macdonald, Morris, and Johnston, “International Law and Society,” supra note 5 at 317.

49 See, for example, Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Changing Relations between the International Court of Justice and the Security Council of the United Nations” (1993) 31 Can. Y.B. Int’l Law 3.Google Scholar

50 Johnston, Douglas M., “Functionalism in the Theory of International Law” (1988) 26 Can. Y.B. Int’l Law 3 at 29, n. 91.Google Scholar

51 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Rummaging in the Ruins: Soviet International Law and Policy in the Early Years: Is Anything Left?” in Wellens, Karel, ed., International Law: Theory and Practice: Essays in Honour of Eric Suy (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1998) 61.Google Scholar

52 Ibid. at 61 (subtitle of chapter).

53 Ibid. at 81.

54 Ibid. at 82.

55 Ibid. at 71–72. See also Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Introduction: Wang Tieya: Persevering in Adversity and Shaping the Future of Public International Law in China” in Macdonald, Ronald St. John, ed., Essays in Honour of Wang Tieya (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1994) 1 at 15–21 Google Scholar (giving an affecting account of the distinguished Chinese international lawyer’s suffering under the successive ideological purges of the Anti-Rightist Movement and Cultural Revolution).

56 Tillich, Paul, “Critique and Justiication of Utopia” in Manuel, Frank E., ed., Utopias and Utopian Thought (Boston: Houghton Miflin, 1966) 296 at 297.Google Scholar

57 Macdonald, “Rummaging in the Ruins,” supra note 51 at 81.

58 See note 53 and accompanying text.

59 Ferns, Chris, Narrating Utopia: Ideology, Gender, Form in Utopian Literature (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1999) at 24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

60 Macdonald, “Rummaging in the Ruins,” supra note 51 at 77–79.

61 Ibid. at 77–78.

62 Ibid. at 75.

63 Ibid. at 74.

64 Ibid. at 74–75.

65 Ibid. at 76.

66 Macdonald, Review of Eunomia, supra note 10.

67 On the history of the word “eunomia,” see Allott, supra note 9 at xxvii, n. 1.

68 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Nuclear Weapon-Free Zones and Principles of International Law” in Heere, Wybo P., ed., International Law and Its Sources: Liber Amicorum Maarten Bos (Deventer, The Netherlands: Kluwer, 1989) 47 at 75.Google Scholar In a number of his writings, Macdonald directly or indirectly advocates the systemic examination of international law or the study of its theoretical foundations. See especially Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “An Historical Introduction to the Teaching of International Law in Canada, Part III” (1976) 14 Can. YB. Int’l Law 224 at 247–56.Google Scholar See also Macdonald, , “Leadership in Law,” supra note 27 at 19–23 Google Scholar; Macdonald and Johnston, “International Legal Theory,” supra note 28.

69 Macdonald, , “Review of Eunomia,” supra note 10 at 822.Google Scholar

70 Ibid. at 822

71 Ibid.

72 Ibid. at 823.

73 Ibid.

74 Jameson, supra note 44 at 11.

75 Djwa, Sandra and Macdonald, Ronald St. John, eds., On F.R. Scott: Essays on His Contributions to Law, Literature, and Politics (Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1983).Google Scholar

76 See Carty, J. A., “Changing Models of the International System” in Butler, William E., ed., Perestroika and International Law (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1990) 13 at 22Google Scholar (describing Batty as “a rather unusual Englishman” and these two works as brilliant).

77 Baty, Thomas, The Canons of International Law (London: Murray, 1930).Google Scholar

78 Baty, Thomas, International Law in Twilight (Tokyo: Maruzen, 1954).Google Scholar

79 See Patai, Daphne and Ingram, Angela, “Fantasy and Identity: The Double Life of a Victorian Sexual Radical” in Ingram, Angela and Patai, Daphne, eds., Rediscovering Forgotten Radicals: British Women Writers, 1889–1939 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1993) 265.Google Scholar

80 See, for example, Macdonald, , “Review of Eunomia,” supra note 10 at 831 Google Scholar (“The great merit of Allott’s timely and imaginative vision is that it stimulates debate on the transcending purposes of a single, sharing, society”).

81 Tillich, supra note 56 at 300.

82 Ibid.

83 See Shklar, Judith, “The Political Theory of Utopia: From Melancholy to Nostalgia” in Manuel, Frank E., ed., Utopias and Utopian Thought (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966) 101 at 109 Google Scholar (distinguishing nineteenth-century utopias from the earlier classical utopias aimed at contemplation or critique).

84 Tillich, supra note 56 at 300. A number of authors consider Marx to be utopian and read his attack on utopian socialism as a disagreement about the process of transition only. See Levitas, Ruth, The Concept of Utopia (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1990) at 35–58 Google Scholar (on Marx, Engels, and utopian socialism), 1024 (on Tillich).

85 Such a preference is consistent with the penchant for historical periodization found elsewhere in Macdonald’s work. See, for example, Macdonald, Johnston, and Morris, “International Law of Human Welfare,” supra note 15.

86 Allott, supra note 9 at xxvi. In this respect, Macdonald differs from many of Eunomia’s readers. See ibid. at xxvii.

87 Macdonald, , “Review of Eunomia,” supra note 10 at 828.Google Scholar

88 Ibid. at 830. For Allott’s response to these criticisms, see Allott, supra note 9 at xxx-xxxiv.

89 See Levitas, supra note 84 at 57.

90 Ferns, supra note 59 at 20.

91 Ibid. at 4 [emphasis in original], quoting Bloch, Ernst, The Utopian Function of Art and Literature: Selected Essays, translated by Zipes, Jack and Mecklenburg, Franck (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988) at 2 Google Scholar (Bloch’s actual phrase is “made banal through the fulfillment”).

92 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Maximilien Bibaud, 1823–1887: The Pioneer Teacher of International Law in Canada” (1988) 11 Dal. L.J. 721 at 721, 740.Google Scholar

93 Bammer, supra note 8 at 4.

94 Ibid. at 51 . Among the overviews of such efforts are ibid. at 48–66; Ferns, supra note 59 at 8–9; Levitas, supra note 84.

95 On the Decade of International Law generally, see Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “The United Nations Decade of International Law” (1990) 28 Can. Y.B. Int’l Law 417.Google Scholar Macdonald served as the irst chair of the United Nations Decade Interest Group [hereinafter UNDIG] of the American Society of International Law. For an indication of UNDIG’s activities, see “UN Decade Newsletter #1” (December 1992), accessible at <http://www.asil.org<; “UN Decade Newsletter #3” (May 1993), accessible at <http://wvww.asil.org>. He has been applauded for his part in “organizing activities and roundtables under the aegis of the Decade, which have provided outstanding opportunities for information-sharing and informal exchanges among various constituencies, including exchanges of points of view between the Sixth Committee and ICJ members.” UNDIG-Sponsored Panel, “Goals of the United Nations Decade of International Law: Law Reform and National Programs” (1993) 87 Proc. Am. Soc. Int’l L. 357 at 373 (Abraham Montes de Oca, Permanent Mission of Mexico to the United Nations). In an echo of the Peoples’ Assembly of “International Law and Society in the Year 2000,” Macdonald maintained that the activities of the national committees established to promote the decade should include the constituencies of education, journalism, religion, trade unionism, youth movements, and senior citizens’ groups. Ibid. at 357–58.

96 Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “Editorial” (1999) 1 J. Hist. Int’l L. v. Google Scholar

97 See Fraser, Nancy, “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy” in Fraser, Nancy, Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the “Postsocialist” Condition (New York: Routledge, 1997) 69 at 80–83 Google Scholar (theorizing “subaltern counterpublics”).

98 See especially Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “An Historical Introduction to the Teaching of International Law in Canada” (1974) 12 Can. YB. Int’l Law 67 Google Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, “An Historical Introduction to the Teaching of International Law in Canada, Part II” (1975) 13 Can. Y.B. Int’l Law 255 Google Scholar; Mac-donald, “Historical Introduction, III,” supra note 68. See also sources cited in note 24.

99 See, for example, Kartashkin, V., “The Marxist-Leninist Approach: The Theory of Class Struggle and Contemporary International Law” in Macdonald, and Johnston, , Structure and Process, supra note 28 at 79 Google Scholar; Macdonald, Ronald St. John, ed., Essays in Honour of Wang Tieya (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1994)Google Scholar; Macdonald, “United Nations Charter,” supra note 19; Macdonald, “Rummaging in the Ruins,” supra note 51.

100 Macdonald, “Solidarity in Practice and Discourse,” supra note 12.

101 An early instance is the inclusion of Jacomy-Millette, Annemarie, “La Femme Nouvelle dans la vie sociale internationale des années 1970” in Macdonald, , Johnston, , and Morris, , Human Welfare, supra note 15 at 291.Google Scholar

102 Macdonald, “Editorial,” supra note 96 at v.

103 Manuel, supra note 11.

104 Shklar, supra note 83 at 105.

105 Macdonald, “Editorial,” supra note 96 at v.

106 In “International Legal Theory: New Frontiers of the Discipline,” Macdonald and Johnston lament the European dominance of the philosophy and doctrine of international law. Macdonald and Johnston, “International Legal Theory,” supra note 28 at 9.

107 Manuel, Frank E. and Manuel, Fritzie P., Utopian Thought in the Western World (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1979) at 28.Google Scholar