No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Throughput Legitimacy and the Duty to Consult: The Limits of the Law to Produce Quality Interactions in British Columbia's EA Process
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 May 2020
Abstract
The duty to consult mandates that the Crown must consult affected Indigenous parties when Crown action may negatively impact Aboriginal rights or title claims. The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC) has emphasized that the duty should be characterized by honourable dealings and good faith negotiations. This article argues that the concept of throughput legitimacy can help evaluate the Crown's conduct in consultation. By analyzing 131 British Columbia Environmental Assessments (BC EAs), this article finds that the Crown struggles to uphold throughput legitimacy from the perspective of Indigenous peoples, particularly in the areas of transparency, accountability and effectiveness.
Résumé
L'obligation de consulter impose à la Couronne de se concerter avec les parties autochtones intéressées lorsque son action peut avoir un impact négatif sur les droits ancestraux et issus de traités. La Cour suprême du Canada (CSC) a souligné que cette obligation doit être caractérisée par des relations honorables et des négociations de bonne foi. Le présent document soutient que le concept de légitimité du rendement peut contribuer à évaluer la conduite de la Couronne en matière de consultation. En analysant 131 évaluations environnementales de la Colombie-Britannique (BC EAs), ce document constate que la Couronne lutte pour maintenir la légitimité du rendement du point de vue des peuples autochtones, en particulier dans les domaines de la transparence, de la responsabilité et de l'efficacité.
Keywords
- Type
- Research Article/Étude originale
- Information
- Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue canadienne de science politique , Volume 53 , Issue 3 , September 2020 , pp. 577 - 595
- Copyright
- Copyright © Canadian Political Science Association (l'Association canadienne de science politique) and/et la Société québécoise de science politique 2020
References
Alfred, Taiaike. 2005. Wasáse: Indigenous Pathways of Action and Freedom. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Armitage, Derek. 2005. “Collaborative Environmental Assessment in the Northwest Territories, Canada.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 25 (3): 239–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arsenault, Rachel, Bourassa, Carrie, Diver, Sibyl, McGregor, Deborah and Witham, Aaron. 2019. “Including Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Environmental Assessments: Restructuring the Process.” Global Environmental Politics 19 (3): 120–32.Google Scholar
Asch, Michael. 2000. “The Judicial Conceptualization of Culture after Delgamuukw and Van der Peet.” Review of Constitutional Studies 5 (2): 119–37.Google Scholar
Asch, Michael. 2004. “Post-Calder, Canada's Judiciary Struggles to Reconfigure Native Rights.” Cultural Survival Quarterly 28 (1): 1–6.Google Scholar
Baker, Douglas, and McLelland, James. 2003. “Evaluating the Effectiveness of British Columbia's Environmental Assessment Process for First Nations’ Participation in Mining Development.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 23 (5): 581–603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaton, Ryan. 2018. “De Facto and De Jure Crown Sovereignty: Reconciliation and Legitimation at the Supreme Court of Canada.” Constitutional Forum 27 (1): 25–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, Annie, and Skelton, Norm. 2011a. “Improving First Nations’ Participation in Environmental Assessment Process. Recommendations from the Field.” Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal 29 (1): 49–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, Annie, and Skelton, Norm. 2011b. “Industry and Government Perspectives on First Nations’ Participation in the British Columbia Environmental Assessment Process.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 31 (3): 216–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borrows, John. 2010. Canada's Indigenous Constitution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Boyd, Brendan, and Lorefice, Sophie. 2018. “Understanding Consultation and Engagement of Indigenous Peoples in Resource Development: A Policy Framing Approach.” Canadian Public Administration 61 (4): 572–95.Google Scholar
Carrier Sekani Tribal Council. 2007. First Nations Perspectives on the BC Environmental Assessment Process. Prince George: Carrier Sekani Tribal Council.Google Scholar
Catt, Helena, and Murphy, Michael. 2003. “What Voice for the People? Categorizing Methods of Public Consultation.” Australian Journal of Political Science 38 (3): 407–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charowsky, Zena. 2011. “The Aboriginal Law Duty to Consult: An Introduction for Administrative Tribunals.” Saskatchewan Law Review 74 (2): 213–30.Google Scholar
Christie, Gordon. 2006. “Developing Case Law: The Future of Consultation and Accommodation.” UBC Law Review 39 (1): 139–84.Google Scholar
Coulthard, Glen. 2014. Red Skin, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Doberstein, Carey, and Millar, Heather. 2014. “Balancing a House of Cards: Throughput Legitimacy in Canadian Governance Networks.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 47 (2): 259–80.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, Avigail. 2009. Reasons of Identity: A Normative Guide to the Political and Legal Assessment of Identity Claims. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, Stephen. 2005. “Meaning Consideration? A Review of Traditional Knowledge in Environmental Decision Making.” Arctic 58 (1): 66–77.Google Scholar
Eyporsson, Einar, and Thuestad, Alma Elizabeth. 2015. “Incorporating Traditional Knowledge in Environmental Impact Assessment: How Can It Be Done?” Arctic Review on Law and Politics 6 (2): 132–50.Google Scholar
Fidler, Courtney, and Hitch, Michael. 2007. “Impact and Benefit Agreements: A Contentious Issue for Environmental and Aboriginal Justice.” Environments Journal 35 (2): 49–69.Google Scholar
Galbraith, Lindsay, Bradshaw, Ben and Rutherford, Murray. 2007. “Towards a New Supraregulatory Approach to Environmental Assessment in Northern Canada.” Impact Assessment Project Appraisal 25 (1): 27–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilmour, Brad, and Mellet, Bruce. 2013. “The Role of Impact and Benefit Agreements in the Resolution of Project Issues with First Nations.” Alberta Law Review 51 (2): 385–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodin, Robert, and Dryzek, John. 2006. “Deliberative Impacts: The Macro-Political Uptake of Mini-Publics.” Politics and Society 34 (2): 219–44.Google Scholar
Graben, Sari, and Sinclair, Abbey. 2015. “Tribunal Administration and the Duty to Consult: A Study of the National Energy Board.” University of Toronto Law Journal 65 (4): 382–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, Bryn. 2016. Building Relationships and Advancing Reconciliation Through Meaningful Consultation. Report to the Minister of Indigenous and Northern Affairs, Canada.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Robert, and Nichols, Joshua. 2019. “The Tin Ear of the Court: Ktunaxa Nation and the Foundation of the Duty to Consult.” Alberta Law Review 56 (3): 729–60.Google Scholar
Howlett, Michael. 2000. “Managing the ‘Hollow State’: Procedural Policy Instruments in Modern Governance.” Canadian Public Administration 43 (4): 412–31.Google Scholar
Hulbert, Margot. 2014. “Evaluating Public Consultation in Nuclear Energy: The Importance of Problem Structuring and Scale.” International Journal of Energy Sector Management 8 (1): 56–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaac, Thomas, and Knox, Anthony. 2003. “The Crown's Duty to Consult Aboriginal People.” Alberta Law Review 41 (1): 49–77.Google Scholar
Iusmen, Ingi, and Boswell, John. 2017. “The Dilemmas of Pursuing ‘Throughput Legitimacy’ through Participatory Mechanisms.” West European Politics 40 (2): 459–78.Google Scholar
Jackson, Laurie Skuba. 2001. “Contemporary Public Involvement: Toward a Strategic Approach.” Local Environment 6 (2): 135–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, Laverne. 2013. “Caught Between Judicial Paradigms and the Administrative State's Pastiche: ‘Tribunal’ Independence, Impartiality, and Bias.” In Administrative Law in Context, ed. Flood, Colleen and Sossin, Lorne. Toronto: Emond Montgomery Publications.Google Scholar
Kirchoff, Denis, Gardner, Holly and Tsuji, Leonard. 2013. “The Canadian Environmental Assessment Act 2012 and Associated Policy: Implications for Aboriginal Peoples.” International Indigenous Policy Journal 4 (3): 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krupta, Joel, Galbraith, Lindsay and Burch, Sarah. 2015. “Participatory and Multi-Level Governance: Applications to Aboriginal Renewable Energy Projects.” Local Environment 20 (1): 81–101.Google Scholar
Lambrech, Kirk. 2013. Aboriginal Consultation, Environmental Assessment and Regulatory Review in Canada. Regina: University of Regina Press.Google Scholar
Lawrence, Sonia, and Macklem, Patrick. 2000. “From Consultation to Reconciliation: Aboriginal Rights and the Crown's Duty to Consult.” Canadian Bar Review 79 (1): 252–79.Google Scholar
Levesque, Mario. 2012. “Mapping a Way Forward: Interest Group Selection and Roles Performed in Engagement Processes.” Canadian Public Administration 55: 531–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macklem, Patrick. 2001. Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macklem, Patrick, and Sanderson, Douglas. 2016. “Introduction: Recognition and Reconciliation in Indigenous-Settler Societies.” In From Recognition to Reconciliation: Essays on the Constitutional Entrenchment of Aboriginal and Treaty Rights, ed. Macklem, Patrick and Sanderson, Douglas. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrossan, Michael, and Ladner, Kiera. 2016. “Eliminating Indigenous Jurisdictions: Federalism, the Supreme Court of Canada, and Territorial Rationalities of Power.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 49 (3): 411–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montpetit, Eric. 2003. “Public Consultations in Policy Network Environments: The Case of Assisted Reproductive Technology Policy in Canada.” Canadian Public Policy 29 (1): 95–110.Google Scholar
Mullan, David. 2011. “The Supreme Court and the Duty to Consult Aboriginal Peoples: A Lifting of the Fog?” Canadian Journal of Administrative Law and Practice 24 (3): 233–60.Google Scholar
Murphy, Michael. 2001. “Culture and the Courts: A New Direction in Canadian Jurisprudence on Aboriginal Rights?” Canadian Journal of Political Science 34 (1): 109–29.Google Scholar
Newman, Dwight. 2014. Revisiting the Duty to Consult Aboriginal Peoples. Saskatoon: Purich Publishing Ltd.Google Scholar
Newman, Dwight. 2016. “Consultation and Economic Reconciliation.” In From Recognition to Reconciliation: Essays on the Constitutional Entrenchment of Aboriginal and Treaty Rights, ed. Macklem, Patrick and Sanderson, Douglas. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Newman, Dwight. 2017. “The Section 35 Duty to Consult.” In The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution, ed. Oliver, Peter, Macklem, Patrick, and Rosiers, Nathalie Des. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Newman, Dwight, ed. 2018. Business Implications of Aboriginal Law. Toronto: LexisNexis Canada.Google Scholar
Noble, Bram, and Fidler, Courtney. 2011. “Advancing Indigenous-Community Corporate Agreements: Lessons from Practice in the Canadian Mining Sector.” Oil Gas & Energy Law 9 (4): 1–30.Google Scholar
Noble, Bram, and Hanna, Kevin. 2015. “Environmental Assessment in the Arctic: A Gap Analysis and Research Agenda.” Arctic 68 (3): 341–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noble, Bram, Ketilson, Skye, Aitken, Alec and Poelzer, Greg. 2013. “Strategic Environmental Assessment Opportunities and Risks for Arctic Offshore Energy Planning and Development.” Marine Policy 39 (1): 296–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noble, Bram, and Udofia, Aniekan. 2015. Protectors of the Land: Toward an EA Process that Works for Aboriginal Communities and Developers. Ottawa: MacDonald-Laurier Institute.Google Scholar
O'Faircheallaigh, Ciarian. 2007. “Environmental Agreements, EIA Followup and Aboriginal Participation in Environmental Management: The Canadian Experience.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 27 (4): 319–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Faircheallaigh, Ciarian, and Corbett, Tony. 2005. “Indigenous Participation in Environmental Management of Mining Projects: The Role of Negotiated Agreements.” Environmental Politics 14 (5): 629–47.Google Scholar
O'Reilly, Kevin. 1996. “Diamond Mining and the Demise of Environmental Assessment in the North.” Northern Perspectives 24 (1): 1–4.Google Scholar
Paci, Chris, Tobin, Ann and Robb, Peter. 2002. “Reconsidering the Canadian Environmental Impact Assessment Act: A Place for Traditional Environmental Knowledge.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 22 (2): 111–27.Google Scholar
Papillon, Martin, and Rodon, Thierry. 2016. “Proponent-Indigenous Agreements and the Implementation of the Right to Free, Prior, and Informed Consent in Canada.” Environmental Assessment Review 62 (1): 216–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patten, Steve. 2001. “Democratizing the Institutions of Policy-Making: Democratic Consultation and Participatory Administration.” Journal of Canadian Studies 35 (4): 221–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierre, Jon. 1998. “Public Consultation and Citizen Participation: Dilemmas of Policy Advice.” In Taking Stock: Assessing Public Sector Reforms, ed. Peters, Guy and Savoie, Donald. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press and Canadian Centre for Management Development.Google Scholar
Plate, Elmar, Foy, Malcolm and Krehbiel, Rrick. 2009. Best Practices for First Nation Involvement in Environmental Assessment Reviews of Development Projects in British Columbia. West Vancouver, BC: New Relationship Trust.Google Scholar
Potes, Veronica. 2006. “The Duty to Accommodate Aboriginal Peoples Rights: Substantive Consultation?” Journal of Environmental Law and Practice 17 (1): 27–45.Google Scholar
Pratchett, Lawrence. 1999. “New Fashions in Public Participation: Towards Greater Democracy?” Parliamentary Affairs 52 (4): 616–34.Google Scholar
Promislow, Janna. 2013. “Irreconcilable? The Duty to Consult and Administrative Decision Makers.” Constitutional Forum 22 (1): 63–78.Google Scholar
Ratner, Robert. 2008. “Communicative Rationality in the Citizens’ Assembly and Referendum Processes.” In Designing Deliberative Democracy: The British Columbia Citizens’ Assembly, ed. Warren, Mark and Pearse, Hilary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rowe, Gene, and Frewer, Lyn. 2000. “Public Participation Methods: A Framework for Evaluation.” Science, Technology and Human Values 25 (1): 3–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scharpf, Fritz. 1999. Governing in Europe: Effective and Democratic? Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, Vivien. 2013. “Democracy and Legitimacy in the European Union Revisited: Input, Output and ‘Throughput’.” Political Studies 61 (1): 2–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, Vivien, and Wood, Matthew. 2019. “Conceptualizing Throughput Legitimacy: Procedural Mechanisms of Accountability, Transparency, Inclusiveness and Openness in EU Governance.” Public Administration 97 (1): 727–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skogstad, Grace. 2003. “Who Governs? Who Should Govern? Political Authority and Legitimacy in Canada in the Twenty-First Century.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 36 (5): 955–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sossin, Lorne. 2010. “The Duty to Consult and Accommodate: Procedural Justice as Aboriginal Rights.” Canadian Journal of Administrative Law and Practice 23 (1): 93–113.Google Scholar
Steffek, Jens. 2019. “The Limits of Proceduralism: Critical Remarks on the Rise of Throughput Legitimacy.” Public Administration 97 (1): 784–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supreme Court of Canada. Haida Nation v. British Columbia (Ministry of Forests), [2004] SCC 73.Google Scholar
Supreme Court of Canada. Mikisew Cree v. Canada (Minister of Canadian Heritage), [2005] SCC 69.Google Scholar
Supreme Court of Canada. Chippewas of the Thames First Nation v. Enbridge Pipelines Inc., [2017] SCC 41.Google Scholar
Tollefson, Chris, and Wipond, Karen. 1998. “Cumulative Environmental Impacts and Aboriginal Rights.” Environmental Impact Assessment Review 18 (4): 371–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Usher, Peter. 2000. “Traditional Knowledge in Environmental Assessment and Management.” Arctic 53 (2): 183–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Meerkerk, Ingmar, Edelenbos, Jurian, and Klijn, Erik-Hans. 2015. “Connective Management and Governance Network Performance: The Mediating Role of Throughput Legitimacy. Findings from Survey Research on Complex Water Projects in the Netherlands.” Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 33 (4): 746–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wicks, Anthony. 2009. “Beyond Audi Alterum Partem: The Duty to Consult Aboriginal Peoples in Canada and New Zealand.” Journal of South Pacific Law 13 (1): 40–46.Google Scholar