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Gender Constitutional Reform and Feminist Mobilization in Greece and the EU: From Formal to Substantive Equality?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 June 2013

Dia Anagnostou
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Abstract

Over the past fifteen years, substantive equality and the idea of positive measures to tackle the structural roots of gender inequality have increasingly gained currency in Europe. Focusing on the case of Greece, this article explores the factors that promote constitutional and statutory reforms to promote substantive equality, and examines the effect of such reforms on gender equality rights and policy. It argues that domestic legal and social mobilization by feminists, who participated in transnational networks, were instrumental in the diffusion of the relevant EU and international norms, leading to a shift in the courts’ jurisprudence and to a constitutional amendment recognizing substantive equality. At the same time, the paper also underscores the ambivalent and limited effects of constitutionalizing substantive equality and positive measures in the absence of ongoing actions aimed at raising awareness and pushing for effective implementation.

Résumé

Depuis les quinze dernières années, l’égalité réelle et l’idée de mesures positives pour stopper les racines structurelles de l’inégalité entre les sexes se sont fait de plus en plus sentir en Europe. Le présent article, qui se concentre sur le cas de la Grèce, explore les facteurs qui mettent en avant les réformes constitutionnelles et statutaires afin de promouvoir l’égalité réelle, et examine les effets de telles réformes sur les droits et les politiques en matière d’égalité entre les sexes. Il fait valoir que la mobilisation nationale juridique et sociale des féministes, qui ont participé à des réseaux transnationaux, est essentielle à la diffusion de normes pertinentes européennes et internationales, ce qui conduira à un changement dans la jurisprudence des tribunaux et à une modification constitutionnelle reconnaissant l’égalité réelle. Dans un même temps, cet article souligne aussi les effets ambivalents et limités d’une constitutionnalisation de l’égalité réelle et de mesures positives en l’absence d’actions continues destinées à accroître la sensibilisation et à promouvoir une mise en place efficace.

Keywords

gender equalityconstitutionalismlegal mobilizationpositive measurescourtsfeminist politicségalité entre les sexesconstitutionnalismemobilisation juridiquemesures positivestribunauxpolitiques féministes
Type
Articles
Information
Canadian Journal of Law and Society / La Revue Canadienne Droit et Société , Volume 28 , Special Issue 2: Gender Equality, Legal Mobilization, and Feminism in a Multilevel European System , August 2013 , pp. 133 - 150
Copyright
Copyright © Canadian Law and Society Association / Association Canadienne Droit et Société 2012 

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References

1 I would like to gratefully acknowledge the contribution of Alexandros-Ioannis Kargopoulos to the case law research, from which this paper draws.

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11 For this definition of positive action, see International perspectives on positive action measures—A comparative analysis in the EU, Canada, the United States and South Africa (Brussels: European Commission, 2009), 6.

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17 The 1975 constitution also stipulated that “all workers, irrespective of sex or other distinctions shall be entitled to equal pay for work of equal value” (Article 22, parag. 1). The Constitution of Greece, as revised by the parliamentary resolution of April 6th 2001 of the VIIth Revisionary Parliament.

18 The pronouncement of a law or executive act as unconstitutional by Greek courts does not automatically lead to its abolishment, but it is expected that the government will proceed with its cancellation and/or replacement. See Iliopoulos-Strangas, Julia and Koutnatzis, Stylianos-Ioannis, “Greece,” in Constitutional Courts as Positive Legislators, ed. Brewer-Carias, Allan R. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 539–573 CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 563–4.

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20 In 1952, women got the right to vote, and in 1953, the first female Member of Parliament was elected. See Chatzi, “Diakriseis logo Fylou,” 159.

21 The Convention was ratified with Law 46/1975 and entered into force in July 1976.

22 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women entered into force on 3 September 1981, and it was ratified in Greece by Law N.1342/1983.

23 Law 1329 of 1983.

24 For instance, the old family law (Art. 1387) required women to obtain the consensus of their husband in order to be able to work. See Papageorgiou, Yiota, Eghemonia kai Feminismos [Hegemony and Feminism] (Athens: Typothito, 2004), 324 Google Scholar, 329.

25 For instance, Law 1414/84 provided for the abolition of all forms of discrimination against women in labor relations, including in training, employment, pay, and promotion.

26 Iliopoulos-Strangas and Koutnatzis, “Greece,” 546.

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29 Law 1911/1990 (Art. 1, parag. 3).

30 Council of State, case no. 2857-2861/1993.

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32 Council of State, Section C, case no. 870/1995.

33 A 1997 Ministerial Order introduced anew restrictive quotas for entry in the various military academies, mainly targeting women and only in one case targeting men (in SAN). Efimeris tis Kyverniseos tis Ellinikis Dimokratias 2, no. 292 (10 April 1997).

34 Service Councils (or departmental boards) are decision-making bodies made up of employees in the public sector and in other legal entities governed by public law.

35 The CoS decision no. 6275/1995 deemed unconstitutional Art. 29 of Law 2085/1992 that required at least one qualified woman to be present in service councils. See Aliki Yiotopoulou-Maragopoulou, “H istoriki strofi tou Symvouliou tis Epikrateias,” 786–87.

36 P. Kapotas, “Gender Equality and Positive Measures for Women in Greece,” 18.

37 CoS, Full Court, case no. 1917/1998. This case was referred to the Plenary Session of the CoS, following the CoS section judgment 5646/1996.

38 Yiotopoulou-Marangopoulou, “H istoriki strofi tou Symvouliou tis Epikrateias,” 789–90.

39 Yiotopoulou-Maragopoulou, “H istoriki strofi tou Symvouliou tis Epikrateias,” 788.

40 There were a total of fourteen decisions that the CoS issued on 8 May 1998 (case no. 1933 and case numbers 1917–1929). See Aliki Yiotopoulou-Marangopoulou, “Pros statheropioisi mias sovaris kataktisis—h ousiastiki isotita sto neo syntagma” [Towards ensuring a major achievement—substantive equality in the new constitution], in Agonas tis Gynaikas (2000).

41 Law 2085/1992 (Art. 29) had already been abolished by the time the CoS reviewed this case (it had been replaced by Law 2190/1994, Art. 38, para. 10). However, the CoS went ahead and reviewed the constitutionality of Law 2085/1992.

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47 Ibid., 547, 558–59.

48 CoS, case numbers 2831, 2832, 2833/2003; also CoS case no. 3185/2003.

49 Law 2910/2001, Article 75.

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51 CoS, Section C, case no. 2906/2003.

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59 Interview, Sofia Koukouli-Spiliotopoulou, Athens, 16 November 2010.

60 Koukouli-Spiliotopoulou, “Greece: From Formal to Substantive Gender Equality,” 664.

61 For an account of all the actions taken, see Koukouli-Spiliotopoulou, “Greece: From Formal to Substantive Gender Equality,” 662–66.

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67 CoS, Section C, case no. 2906/2003. Law 2622/1998 (Art. 3, parag. 1) as amended by Law 2838/2000, Art. 1, parag. 2) had reasoned that because the nature of the work and activities involved required special physical and bodily advantages, 90 percent of those recruited would be Greek males and only 10 percent would be women.

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74 See the important judgment of the CoS Grand Chamber, case no. 365/2006.

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77 This is Law 2839/2000 (Art. 6). It stipulated that a minimum of one third of departmental board members in the public sector should belong to each sex.

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