Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T22:42:00.072Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Should emergency departments offer postexposure prophylaxis for non-occupational exposure to HIV?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 May 2015

Julie M. Spence*
Affiliation:
Department of Emergency Medicine, St. Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, Ont.
*
Department of Emergency Medicine, St. Michael’s Hospital, 30 Bond St., Toronto ON M5B 1W8; 416 864-5095, fax 416 864-5341, [email protected]

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Controversies • Controverses
Copyright
Copyright © Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians 2003

References

1.Public Health Service guidelines for the management of healthcare worker exposures to HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1998;47(RR-7):128. Available: www.cdc.gov/epo/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00052722.htm (accessed 2002 Nov 13).Google Scholar
2.Ippolito, G, Puro, V, Heptonstall, J, Jagger, J, De Carli, G, Petrosillo, N.Occupational human immunodeficiency virus infection in health care workers: worldwide cases through September 1997. Clin Infect Dis 1999;28:36583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3.Health Canada. HIV/AIDS Epi Update. Ottawa: Division of HIV/AIDS Epidemiology and Surveillance; April 2002.Google Scholar
4.Management of possible sexual, injection-drug-use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV, including considerations related to antiretroviral therapy Public Health Service statement. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1998;47(RR-17):114. Available: www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00054952.htm (accessed 2002 Nov 8).Google Scholar
5.Preventive therapy for non-occupational exposures to HIV. CDC Divisions of HIV/AIDS Prevention; 2002. Available: www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/facts/petfact.htm (accessed 2002 Nov 19).Google Scholar
6.Greenwood, MJ.Exposure to HIV: medical management and legal implications. J Emerg Med 2000;19(3):2319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.DeGruttola, V, Seage, GR, Mayer, KH, Horsburgh, CR.Infectiousness of HIV between male homosexual partners. J Clin Epidemiol 1989;42:84956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.Jacquez, JA, Koopman, JS, Simon, CP, Longini, IM.Role of the primary infection in epidemics of HIV infection in gay cohorts. J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr 1994;7:116984.Google ScholarPubMed
9.Bamberger, JD, Waldo, CR, Geberding, JL, Katz, M.Postexposure prophylaxis for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection following sexual assault. Am J Med 1999;106:3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10.Wiley, JA, Herschkorn, SJ, Padian, NS.Heterogeneity in the probability of HIV transmission per sexual contact: the case of male-to-female transmission in penile–vaginal intercourse. Stat Med 1989;8:93102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Peterman, TA, Stoneburner, RL, Allen, JR, Jaffe, HW, Curran, JW.Risk of human immunodeficiency virus transmission from heterosexual adults with transfusion-associated infections. JAMA 1989;259:558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12.Downs, MA, De Vincenzi, I.Probability of heterosexual transmission of HIV: relationship to the number of unprotected sexual contacts. J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1996;11:38895.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Mastro, TD.Probabilities of sexual HIV-1 transmission. AIDS 1996;10(suppl A):S7582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Katz, MH, Gerberding, JL.The care of persons with recent sexual exposure to HIV. Ann Intern Med 1998;128:30612.Google Scholar
15.Kaplan, EH, Heimer, R.A model-based estimate of HIV infectivity via needle sharing. J Acquir Immune Defic Synd 1992;5: 11168.Google ScholarPubMed
16.Dominguez, KL.Management of HIV-infected children in the home and institutional settings. Pediatr Clin North Am 2000;47 (1):20339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17.Richman, KM, Rickman, LS.The potential for transmission of human immunodeficiency virus through human bites. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1993;6(4):4026.Google Scholar
18.Updated US Public Health Service guidelines for the management of occupational exposures to HBV, HCV, and HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001;50(RR-11):152.Google Scholar
19.Lurie, P, Miller, S, Hecht, F, Chesney, M, Lo, B.Postexposure prophylaxis after nonoccupational HIV exposure. JAMA 1998;280 (20):176973.Google Scholar
20.American Academy of Pediatrics. Human immunodeficiency virus infection. In: Pickering, LK, editor. 2000 Red Book: Report of the Committee on Infectious Disease. Elk Grove Village (IL): 2000. p. 32550.Google Scholar
21.Aragon Pena, AJ, Arrazola Martinez, MP, Garcia de Codes, A, Davila Alvarez, FM, de Juanes Pardo, JR.Hepatitis B prevention and risk of HIV infection in children injured by discarded needles and/or syringes. Aten Primaria 1996;17:13840.Google Scholar
22.Nourse, CB, Charles, CA, McKay, M, Keenan, P, Butler, KM.Childhood needle stick injuries in the Dublin metropolitan area. Irish Med J 1997;90:669.Google Scholar
23.Rinaldi, R, Francavilla, E, Cadrobbi, P.HIV infection and needlestick injuries with syringes discarded by drug abusers. Infection 1991;1:57.Google Scholar
24.Spira, AI, Marx, PA, Patterson, BK, Mahoney, J, Koup, RA, Wolinsky, SM, et al. Cellular targets of infection and route of viral dissemination after an intravaginal inoculation of simian immunodeficiency virus into rhesus macaques. J Exp Med 1996; 183:21525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25.Zhang, ZQ, Schuler, T, Zupancic, M, Wietgrefe, S, Staskus, KA, Reimann, KA, et al. Sexual transmission and propagation of SIV and HIV in resting and activated CD4+ T cells. Science 1999; 286:13537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26.Blauvelt, A.The role of skin dendritic cells in the initiation of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Med 1997;102 (5B):1620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Pope, M, Gezelter, S, Gallo, N, Hoffman, L, Steinman, RM.Low levels of HIV-1 infection in cutaneous dendritic cells promote extensive viral replication upon binding to memory CD4+ T cells. J Exp Med 1995;182:204556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Blauvelt, A, Katz, SI.The skin as target, vector and effect on organ in human immunodeficiency virus disease. J Invest Dermatol 1995;103:122S6S.Google Scholar
29.Tsai, CC, Follis, KE, Sabo, A, Beck, TW, Grant, RF, Bischofberger, N, et al. Prevention of SIV infection in macaques by (R)-9-(2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl) adenine. Science 1995;270:11979.Google Scholar
30.Tsai, CC, Follis, KE, Sabo, O, Grant, R, Bishofberger, N.Efficacy of 9-(2-phosphonylmethoxyethyl) adenine treatment against chronic simian immunodeficiency virus infection in macaques. J Infect Dis 1995;171:133843.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31.Van Rompay, KK, Marthas, ML, Ramos, RA, Mandell, CP, McGowan, EK, Joye, SM, et al. Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection of infant rhesus macaques as a model to test antiretroviral drug prophylaxis and therapy: oral 3’-azido-3’-deoxythymidine prevents SIV infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36(11):23816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32.Van Rompay, KK, Otsyula, MG, Marthas, ML, Miller, CJ, McChesney, MB, Pedersen, NC.Immediate zidovudine treatment protects simian immunodeficiency virus-infected newborn macaques against rapid onset of AIDS. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995;39(1):12531.Google Scholar
33.Tavares, L, Roneker, C, Johnston, K, Lehrman, SN, deNoronha, F.3’-azido-3’-deoxythymidine in feline leukemia virus-infected cats: a model for therapy and prophylaxis of AIDS. Cancer Res 1987;47:31904.Google Scholar
34.Ruprecht, RM, Chou, CT, Chipty, F, Sosa, MG, Mullaney, S, O’Brien, L, et al. Interferon-alpha and 3’-azido-3’-deoxythynmidine are highly synergistic in mice and prevent viremia and after acute retroviral exposure. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1990 (3):591600.Google ScholarPubMed
35.Fazely, F, Haseltine, WA, Rodger, RF, Ruprecht, RM.Postexposure chemoprophylaxis with ZDV or ZDV combined with interferon-alpha: failure after inoculating rhesus monkeys with a high dose of SIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1991;4:10937.Google Scholar
36.Henderson, DK.Postexposure chemoprophylaxis for occupational exposures to the human immunodeficiency virus. JAMA 1999;281(10):9316.Google Scholar
37.Katz, MH, Gebererding, JL.Postexposure treatment of people exposed to the human immunodeficiency virus through sexual contact or injection drug use. N Engl J Med 1997;336(15):1097100.Google Scholar
38.Clerici, M, Levin, JM, Kessler, HA, Harris, A, Berzofsky, JA, Landay, AL, et al. HIV-specific T-helper activity in seronegative health care workers exposed to contaminated blood. JAMA 1994;271(1):426.Google Scholar
39.Pinto, LA, Landay, AL, Berzofsky, JA, Kessler, HA, Shearer, GM.Immune response to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in healthcare workers occupationally exposed to HIV-contaminated blood. Am J Med 1997;102(5B):214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.D’Amico, R, Pinto, LA, Meyer, P, Landay, AL, Harris, AA, Clerici, M, et al. Effect of zidovudine postexposure prophylaxis on the development of HIV-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses in HIV-exposed healthcare workers. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:42830.Google Scholar
41.Cardo, DM, Culver, DH, Ciesielski, CA, Srivastava, PU, Marcus, R, Abiteboul, D, et al. A case–control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Needlestick Surveillance Group [see comments]. N Engl J Med 1997;337(21):148590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42.Mangione, CM, Gerberding, JL, Cummings, SR.Occupational exposure to HIV: frequency and rates of underreporting of percutaneous and mucocutaneous exposures by medical housestaff. Am J Med 1991;90:8590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43.Carpenter, CC, Fischl, MA, Hammer, SM, Hirsch, MS, Jacobsen, DM, Katzenstein, DA, et al. Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in 1998. JAMA 1998;280:7886.Google Scholar
44.Fournier, S, Maillard, A, Molinara, JM.Failure of postexposure prophylaxis after sexual exposure to HIV. AIDS 2001;15(3):430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45.Connor, EM, Sperling, RS, Gelber, R, Kiselev, P, Scott, G, O’Sullivan, MJ, et al. Reduction of maternal–infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus Type I with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med 1994;331(18):117380.Google Scholar
46.Administration of zidovudine during late pregnancy and delivery to prevent perinatal HIV transmission, Thailand, 1996–1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1998;47:1514.Google Scholar
47.Shaffer, N, Chuachoowong, R, Mock, PA, Bhadrakom, C, Siriwasin, W, Young, NL, et al. Short-course zidovudine for perinatal HIV-1 transmission in Bangkok, Thailand: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 1999;353:77380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
48.Wade, NE, Birkhead, GS, Warren, BL, Charbonneau, TT, French, T, Wang, L, et al. Abbreviated regimens for zidovudine prophylaxis and perinatal transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med 1998;339(20):140914.Google Scholar
49.Musoke, P, Guay, LA, Bagenda, D, Mirochnick, M, Nakabiito, C, Fleming, T, et al. A phase I/II study of the safety and pharmacokinetics of nevirapine in HIV-1-infected pregnant Ugandan women and their neonates (HIVNET 006). AIDS 1999;13:47986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50.Guay, LA, Musoke, P, Fleming, T, Bagenda, D, Allen, M, Nakabiito, C, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 Randomized Trial. Lancet 1999;354:795802.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Laporte, A, Jourdan, N, Bouvet, E, Lamontagne, F, Pillonel, J, Desenclos, JC.Post-exposure prophylaxis after non-occupational HIV exposure: impact of recommendations on physicians’ experiences and attitudes. AIDS 2002;16(3):397405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52.Puro, V, De Carli, G, Orchi, N, Palvarini, L, Chiodera, A, Fantoni, M, et al. Short-term adverse effects from and discontinuation of antiretroviral post-exposure prophylaxis. J Bio Regul Hemost Agents 2001;15(3):23842.Google Scholar
53.Kahn, JG, Martin, JN, Roland, ME, Bamberger, JD, Chesney, M, Chambers, D, et al. Feasibility of postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) against human immunodeficiency virus infection after sexual or injection drug use exposure: the San Francisco PEP Study. J Infect Dis 2001;183:70714.Google Scholar
54.Cardo, D, Danila, R, Deitchman, S, Jensen, P, Middleton, J, Panlilio, A, et al, for the HIV PEP Registry Advisory Committee. The HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis Registry. Registry of health-care workers receiving postexposure prophylaxis after occupational exposure to human immunodeficiency virus. Final report: 17 October 1996 through 31 March 1999. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Glaxo Wellcome Inc, Merck & Co., Inc.; 1999 March 31. Available: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/hip/BLOOD/PEPRegistry.pdf (accessed 2002 Nov 19).Google Scholar
55.Beekman, SE, Nelson, L, Bangsberg, D, Henderson, DK, Gerberding, JL.Combination post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP): a prospective study of HIV-exposed health care workers (HCW) [poster]. Infectious Diseases Society of America, Denver (CO); 1998.Google Scholar
56.Parkin, JM, Murphy, M, Anderson, J, ElGadi, S, Forster, G, Pinching, AJ.Tolerability and side-effects of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV infection. Lancet 2000;355:7223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57.Wang, SA, Panlilio, AL, Doi, PA, White, AD, Stek, M Jr, Saah, A.Experience of healthcare workers taking postexposure prophylaxis after occupational HIV exposures: findings of the HIV Postexposure Prophylaxis Registry. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:7805.Google ScholarPubMed
58.Garb, JR.One-year study of occupational human immunodeficiency virus postexposure prophylaxis. J Occup Environ Med 2002;44(3):26570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59.Rabaud, C, Bevilacqua, S, Beguinot, I, Dorvaux, V, Schumhmacher, H, May, T, et al. Tolerability of postexposure prophylaxis with zidovudine, lamivudine, and nelfinavir for human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:14945.Google Scholar
60.Sha, BE, Proia, LA, Kessler, HA.Adverse effects associated with use of nevirapine in HIV postexposure prophylaxis for 2 health care workers [letter]. JAMA 2000;284(21):2723.Google Scholar
61.Johnson, S, Baraboutis, JG.Adverse effects associated with use of nevirapine in HIV postexposure prophylaxis for 2 health care workers [letter]. JAMA 2000;284(21):2722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62.Serious adverse events attributed to nevirapine regimens for postexposure prophylaxis after HIV exposures – worldwide, 1997–2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001;49:11536.Google Scholar
63.Rey, D, L’Heritier, A, Lang, JM.Severe ototoxicity in a health care worker who received postexposure prophylaxis with stavudine, lamivudine, and nevirapine after occupational exposure to HIV. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34:418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
64.Greub, G, Gallant, S, Zurn, P, Vannotti, M, Burgisser, P, Francioli, P, et al. Spare non-occupational HIV post-exposure prophylaxis by active contacting and testing of the source person. AIDS 2002;16(8):11716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65.HIV and sexual violence against women. Health Canada; 2000. Available: www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hppb/hiv_aids/you/sex_violence/risk.html (accessed 2002 Nov 19).Google Scholar
66.Busch, MP.Time course of viremia and antibody seroconversion following human immunodeficiency virus exposure. Am J Med 1997;102(5B):11724.Google Scholar
67.Lurie, P, Miller, S, Hecht, F, Lo, B.Postexposure prophylaxis following HIV exposure. JAMA 1999;281(14):1270.Google Scholar
68.Kalichman, SC.Post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV infection in gay and bisexual men: implications for the future of HIV prevention. Am J Prev Med 1998;15(2):1207.Google Scholar
69.Kunches, LM, Meehan, TM, Boutwell, RC, McGuire, JF.Survey of nonoccupational HIV postexposure prophylaxis in hospital emergency departments. J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr 2001;26 (3):2635.Google Scholar
70.Giele, CM, Maw, R, Carne, CA, Evans, BG.Post-exposure prophylaxis for non-occupational exposure to HIV: current clinical practice and opinions in the UK. Sex Transm Infect 2002;78(2):1302.Google Scholar
71.Babl, FE, Cooper, ER, Kastner, B, Kharasch, S.Prophylaxis against possible human immunodeficiency virus exposure after nonoccupational needlestick injuries or sexual assaults in children and adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001;155:6802.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72.HIV/AIDS among men who have sex with men. Division of HIV/AIDS Surveillance, Bureau of HIV/AIDS, STD and TB, LCDC, Health Canada; 1999.Google Scholar
73.Gostin, LO, Lazzarini, Z, Alexander, D, Brandt, AM, Mayer, KH, Silverman, DC.HIV testing, counseling, and prophylaxis after sexual assault. JAMA 1994;271(18):143644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74.Wiebe, ER, Comay, SE, McGregor, MJ, Ducceschi, S.Offering HIV prophylaxis to people who have been sexually assaulted: 16 months’ experience in a sexual assault service. CMAJ 2000; 162(5):6415.Google Scholar
75.Myles, JE, Hirozawa, A, Katz, M, Kimmerling, R, Bamberger, JD.Postexposure prophylaxis for HIV after sexual assault. JAMA 2000;284(12):15167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed