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V. Kashghar and the Politics of Central Asia, 1868–1878

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 December 2011

V. G. Kiernan
V. G. Kiernan
Affiliation:
Lecturer in Modern History in the University of Edinburgh
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Extract

Chinese Tartary or Turkestan, or what has been since 1884 the ‘New Province’ of Sinkiang, is an irregular thousand-mile long tract in the heart of Asia, shut in on three sides by mountains and on the east by vast deserts. That it should still be in China's possession today, after a century in which so many of her outlying dependencies were shorn away, is one of the facts of modern history that it would have been most rash to predict.

Type
Research Article
Information
Cambridge Historical Journal , Volume 11 , Issue 3 , 1955 , pp. 317 - 342
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1955

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References

1 For general descriptions and maps see Report [of a Mission to Yarkund in 1873], by Sir T. D. Forsyth and his assistants (1875); Boulger, D. C., Yakoub Beg (1878)Google Scholar; Kuropatkin, A. N., Kashgaria (trans. Gowan, W. E., 1882)Google Scholar; Cobbold, R. P., Innermost Asia (1900)Google Scholar; Hartmann, M., Chinesische Turkestan (1908)Google Scholar; Skrine, C. P., Chinese Central Asia (1926)Google Scholar; Stein, Sir Aurel, On Ancient Central-Asian Tracks (1933)Google Scholar. The name usually written Kashgar is properly Kashghar.

2 On the importance to China of this mineral wealth see Henderson, G. and Hume, A. O., Lahore to Yarkand (1873), pp. 94, 103Google Scholar; Bellew, H. W., Kashmir and Kashghar (1875), p. 6Google Scholar; Williams, S. Wells, The Middle Kingdom (1883), 1, p. 227Google Scholar. China might have advanced still further in Central Asia; in 1762–3 Khokand and Bokhara were seeking Afghan help against a threatened attack. See Report, p. 181; ch. in of this is an outline History of Kashghar by H. W. Bellew, as are chs. iv and v of Kuropatkin, op. cit.; also see A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia, ed. Elias, N. (1898)Google Scholar.

3 An early English account of the fall of the Khoja dynasty is given in Burnes, A., Travels into Bokhara (2nd ed. 1835), iii, p. 191 ffGoogle Scholar.

4 The origin of the name Tungan or Dungan is not clear. It was originally taken to be a tribal name. Another view derived it from a Chinese phrase tun-jen, for ‘military colonist’. Later it was generally taken to be a Turki word for ‘convert’, applied in Turkestan to converts to Islam in north-west China; see, for example, M. Hartmann,‘Muhamadanism in China’, in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, and ‘China’, in Encyclopaedia of Islam; cp. Bellew, in Report, p. 201, and Kuropatkin, op. cit. pp. 113, 11. 2, 154–5. I am indebted to Mr Vyvyan of Trinity College, Cambridge, for advice on this and other points.

5 Schuyler, E., Turkestan (1876), 11, p. 157Google Scholar.

6 The Times, 17 July 1877, p. 10, col. 3 (an obituary). On Yakub's career see Boulger, op. cit. ch. vi covers his earlier years, on which see also Report, pp. 97–9, 203 ff., and Kuropatkin, op. cit., ch. vi.

7 See Boulger, op. cit., ch. viii, ‘Wars with the Tunganis’.

8 On the subjugation of the Khanates see Spalding, H., Khiva and Turkestan (trans, of a Russian publication, 1874) p. 30 ff.Google Scholar; Parliamentary] Papers, 1878, lxxx, ‘Central Asia, no. 1’; Skrine, F. H. and Ross, E. D., The Heart of Asia, a History of Russian Turkestan (1899), pp. 247–61Google Scholar.

9 Schuyler, op. cit., 11, p. 255; cp. von Hellwald, F., Die Russen in Centralasien (1873), pp. in, 130Google Scholar.

10 Properly Ataliq Ghazi, the first word—often found in such titles—meaning apparently ‘age’, hence ‘paternity’, and so ‘tutor’ or ‘guardian’.

11 Spalding, op. cit. pp. 28–34.

12 Boulger, op. cit. p. 181; cp. the article ‘Eastern Toorkistan’ in Edinburgh Review, April 1874, p. 308 ff.

13 Burnaby, F., A Ride to Khiva (1877), p. 181Google Scholar.

14 Loftus, Lord Augustus, Diplomatic Reminiscences, 2nd series, 11 (1894), pp. 38 ff.Google Scholar, reports an official Russian version.

15 Krausse, A., Russia in Central Asia (1899), p. 178Google Scholar.

16 Diplomatic Study of the Crimean War, official Russian publication (English ed. 1882), I, p. 6. For the view that it was chimerical to expect the survival of small States between the two empires, see Wallace, D. M., Russia (5th ed. 1877), II, pp. 440–1Google Scholar.

17 Temple, Sir R., India in 1880 (1880), pp. 340–1Google Scholar. On this political danger to India see also Boulger, , England and Russia in Central Asia (1879), 11Google Scholar, and Colquhoun, A. R., Russia against India (1900)Google Scholar.

18 Part. Papers, 1864, xlii. A Select Committee on the colonization of India had shown some interest a little earlier; ibid. 1857–8, vii, part 11, pp. 1–10.

19 Part. Papers, 1868–69, xlvi, ‘Eastern Turkestan’, pp. 7–9.

20 Knight, E. F., Where Three Empires Meet (1895), p. 348Google Scholar.

21 Trotter, Capt. H., ‘On the geographical results of the mission to Kashghar … in 1873–4’, in j[ournal of the] R[oyal] G[eographical] S[ociety], xlviii (1878), pp. 225–6Google Scholar. Cp. Shaw's, R. B. papers in Proc[eedings of the] R[oyal] G[eographical]S[ociety] xvi (1872), pp. 242Google Scholar ff. 395 ff., and Semenoff's, in Geog[raphical] Journal, xxxv (1865), pp. 213 ffGoogle Scholar. Two early accounts of the Yarkand route from native sources are in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vii (1843), pp. 283–342 (first printed 1825), and xii (1850), pp. 372–85.

22 See a paper by Montgomerie, T. G., directing the work, in Geog. Journal, xxxvi (1866), pp. 157 ff.Google Scholar; cp. Yule, H., Introduction to Prejevalsky, N. M. (Przhevalsky), Mongolia (English ed. 1876), p. xixGoogle Scholar. A. Schlagintweit, a German exploring from India, had been killed at Kashghar in 1857.

23 Johnson, W. H., ‘Report on his journey to Ilchi’, in J.R.G.S. xxxvii (1867), pp. 21 ffGoogle Scholar.

24 Wyllie, J. W. S., in Edinburgh Review, Jan. 1867, pp. 51–2Google Scholar; cp. Temple, Sir R., Men and Events of My Time in India (1882), p. 340Google Scholar, and Part. Papers, 1868–69, xlvi, ‘Eastern Turkestan’, pp. 7–9.

25 Part. Papers, 1867–68, L, ‘Correspondence … relating to the appointment of a commercial agent in Ladakh … ’, p. 6.

26 Ibid. pp. 18–19 (24 Sept. and 1 Oct. 1867).

27 Parl. Papers, 1868–69, xlvi, ‘Eastern Turkestan’, pp. 15 ff.

28 Ibid. pp. 11–12, 9.

29 Shaw, R. B., Visits to High Tartary, Yarkand, and Kashghar (1871), pp. 260 ff., 353 ffGoogle Scholar. On the career of Shaw, who began as a tea-planter and died in 1878 as Resident at Mandalay, see D[ictionary of] N[ational] B[iography]. Hayward's, account of his journey is in J.R.G.S. xl (1870), pp. 33–166Google Scholar. An Indian agent reached Kashghar at the same time by way of Kabul, and was well received; see account of ‘the Mirza's’ journey in Proc.R.G.S. xv (1871), pp. 198 ff.

30 Part. Papers, 1873, lxxv, ‘Central Asia, no. 2’ (pp. 16–17; CP. Shaw's account of his journey in Proc.R.G.S. xiv (1869–70), pp. 124ff.); Hayward, loc. cit. p. 98.

31 Bellew, Kashmir and Kashghar, p. xiv; Parl. Papers, 1868–69, XLVI, ‘Eastern Turkestan’, p. 57; Wade to Lord Tenterden, Conf., 4 June 1877, F.O. 17 (China) 825, P.R.O. Henderson and Hume, op. cit. p. 143, were among those who believed that trade could readily be expanded. For other accounts of the caravan routes see Thomson, T., Western Himalaya and Tibet (1852), p. 410Google Scholar, and Drew, F., The Jumtnoo and Kashmir Territories (1875), pp. 539–44Google Scholar. At Leh in 1945 I met the very friendly Chinese officer, Major S. S. Chiu, in charge of caravans conveying war stores to China.

32 Parl. Papers, 1878, lxxx, ‘Central Asia, no. 1’, pp. 170, 171, 176–7.

33 Edinburgh Review, April 1868, pp. 392–6. A parallel problem was offered by the ‘Panthays’, or Muslim rebels of south-west China, who for some years seemed able to found a regular State, and with whom some contacts were made from India in the late sixties.

34 Hunter, W. W., A Life of the Earl of Mayo (1875), 1, ch. vGoogle Scholar.

35 Autobiography [and Reminiscences of Sir Douglas Forsyth], ed. Forsyth, Ethel (1887), pp. 45–50Google Scholar; A. P. Thornton, ‘Afghanistan in Anglo-Russian diplomacy, 1860–73’, Cambridge Historical Journal, xl, no. 2, pp. 209 ff.

36 Parl. Papers, 1873, lxxv, ‘Central Asia, no. 2’, pp. 11–12;cp.pp. 12–14. A long circular sent out by Gorchakov on 5 April 1875 included a summary of the Forsyth talks from his point of view; Parl. Papers, 1878, LXXX, ‘Central Asia, no. 1’, pp. 25 ff.

37 Govt. of India to Govt. of Panjab, 6 Jan. 1871: Parl. Papers, 1871, Li, ‘Yarkand (Forsyth's Mission)’, pp. 45–7.

38 Two Englishmen, Stoddart and Connolly, had been murdered in Bokhara.

39 W. W. Hunter, op. cit. 1, pp. 303, 271, 299.

40 Parl. Papers, 1871, li, ‘Yarkand (Forsyth's Mission)’, pp. 19 ff., and Forsyth, Autobiography, p. 88.

41 Parl. Papers, ibid. ‘Yarkand (Forsyth's Mission)’, p. 22.

42 Ibid. p. 3.

43 Bellew, op. cit. p. 187.

44 Forsyth, , Introduction to Prejevalsky, N. M., From Kulja across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor (English ed. 1879), p. 10Google Scholar.

45 Kuropatkin, op. cit. pp. 10–11.

46 Shaw says that the Kashgharian envoy in 1871 had several interviews with Mayo at Calcutta and requested a British mission; Proc.R.G.S. xvi (1872), p. 407.

47 Kuropatkin, op. cit. pp. 61–2, with text of the treaty.

48 Part. Papers, 1878, lxxx, ‘Central Asia, no. 1 ’, pp. 205–6.

49 For the text of the Russian treaty with Khiva of Aug. 1873, and the British warning to Russia not to advance further, see Parl. Papers 1874, lxxvi, ‘Russia, no. 2’.

50 Baker, V., Clouds in the East (1876), p. 1Google Scholar; cp. Malleson, G.B., History of Afghanistan (1878), p. 437Google Scholar.

51 For the treaty see Parl. Papers 1874, xlviii.

52 Report, p. 16.

53 Henderson and Hume, op. cit. p. 141.

54 Shaw, M, Bellew, , Henderson, , Hume, , and Gordon, T. E. (The Roof of the World, 1876)Google Scholar all accompanied one or other of the Forsyth missions. Half of the annual gold medals of the Royal Geographical Society in these seven or eight years went to explorers of E. Turkestan.

55 Forsyth, Autobiography, p. 77.

56 Boulger, op. cit. pp. 229–31; cp. pp. 203–4.

57 Trotter, in J.R.G.S. xlviii (1878), p. 228.

58 Quoted in Forsyth, Autobiography, p. 206.

59 Parl. Papers. 1878, LXXX, ‘Central Asia, no. 1 ’, p. 14.

60 Obituary of R. B. Shaw by Lord Northbrook, Proc.R.G.S. 1 (n.s.), 1879, p. 524.

61 Part. Papers, 1878, lxxx, ‘Central Asia, no. 1’, pp. 14, 15, 17, 24–5, 69.

62 Balfour, Lady Betty, The History of Lord Lytton's Indian Administration, 1876 to 1882 (1899), p. 35Google Scholar. A Russian officer in Turkestan in 1877 made a similar complaint to Burnaby; Burnaby, op. cit. p. 143. A correspondence in the Tenterden Papers (F.O. 363/1) shows that both the Commander-in-Chief and the India Office were annoyed with Burnaby himself for helping to arouse Russian suspicions. Cp. Sumner, B. H., Russia and the Balkans 1870–1880 (1937), P. 56Google Scholar. Indian mercenaries and exiles did serve in Yakub's army (on which see Kuropatkin, op. cit. ch. vii); Forsyth heard orders being given in English (Autobiography, p. 178).

63 The Times, 17 July 1877.

64 Report, p. 11.

65 Merzbacher, G., The Central Tian-Shan Mountains (1902–1903) (1905), p. 162Google Scholar.

66 Vambéry, A., History of Bokhara (1873), p. 400Google Scholar.

67 Rawlinson, Sir H., England and Russia in the East, (2nd ed. 1875), p. 344Google Scholar. Turkish military instructors, according to the Russians, were reorganizing Yakub's forces (Kuropatkin, op. cit. p. 196).

68 Rawlinson, op. cit. p. 312.

69 Burnaby, op. cit. p. 311.

70 Wells Williams (an American writer), op. cit. 11, p. 720.

71 Wade to Forsyth, and Indian Govt. to Wade, enclosed with Wade to Derby, no. 136, 8 July 1876, F.O. 17/825. Cp. Wade to Tenterden, pte., 19 May 1877: ‘I was at some pains in 1870 to explain to the Chinese that our relations with Yacoob (then only Beg) were commercial and that all we required was a set of commercial rules for the regulation of trade in and across Kashgaria’ (F.O. 363/4). In China mandarins went on being gazetted to the official hierarchy of Turkestan as if the province had never been lost (see article ‘Eastern Turkestan’ in Edinburgh Review, April 1874, pp. 307–8).

72 On Tso Tsung-t'ang (1812–85) see the article by Tu Lien-chê in Hummel, A. W., Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period (1943)Google Scholar.

73 As late as 1888 a traveller found unrest still smouldering among the Muslims of Kansu (Rockhill, W. W., Land of the Lamas (1891), pp. 28, 39Google Scholar).

74 See description of t he route by Col. M. S. Bell, who claimed to be the first European to travel its whole length, in Proc.R.G.S. xii (n.s.), 1890.

75 Prejevalsky, Mongolia, 11, pp. 130–3.

76 For an anecdote illustrating this see Moule, A. E., Half a Century in China (1911), P. 133Google Scholar.

77 On Li, see MrsLittle, A., Li Hung-chang and his Life and Times (1903)Google Scholar; Bland, J. O. P. Li Hung-chang (1917)Google Scholar.

78 Wade to Derby, no. 136, 8 July 1876, F.O. 17/825.

79 Fraser (charg' d'affaires, Peking) to Tenterden, pte., 22 July 1876, F.O. 363/1.

80 Boulger, , [The Life of Sir] Halliday Macartney [K.C.M.G.] (1908), p. 257Google Scholar. A writer in England argued that if Russia should wish to quarrel with China over Kashghar, ‘we neither can nor need do much to say her nay’ (Partridge, J. A., The Policy of England in Relation to India and the East (1877), p. 74Google Scholar).

81 Papers on the question of a loan in F.O. 17/825, 826.

82 Forsyth to Wade, 9 April 1876, and other enclosures (as above), with Wade to Derby, no. 136 of 1876.

83 Boulger, Yakoub Beg, pp. 238–40, 275.

84 Memo, by Wade, 15 Sept. 1876, F.O. 17/825.

85 Memo, by Mayers, 9 Dec. 1876, F.O. 17/825.

86 Wade to Derby, 5 Mar. 1877, F.O. 17/825. Loftus (op. cit. II, pp. 46 ff.) had never been a believer in the theory of Russian designs against India.

87 Loftus to Derby, no. 332, 26 June 1877, F.O. 65/967.

88 India Office to F.O., 23 Feb. 1877, F.O. 17/825.

89 Memos. by P. Currie, 24 Mar. 1877, and Tenterden, 27 Mar. 1877, with minutes by Derby, F.O. 17/825.

90 Memo, by Wade, 26 Mar. 1877, and Wade to Tenterden, Conf., 4 June 1877, F.O. 17/825.

91 F.O. to India Office, 16 Apr. 1877, F.O. 17/825.

92 Sumner, op. cit. pp. 308–9.

93 Cowling, M., ‘War against Russia. A suppressed episode of 1876–7’, Manchester Guardian, 16 July 1954Google Scholar.

94 Tenterden to Layard, pte., 21 June 1877, F.O. 363/2.

95 Kuropatkin, op. cit. pp. 180–2, 4–5.

96 Ibid. Introduction.

97 Fraser to Derby, tg. cyph., 1 May 1877, F.O. 17/825.

98 Foreign Dept., Simla, to India Office, no. 24, Secret, 16 July 1877, and enclosed report from Fraser, F.O. 17/825.

99 From Kulja across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor, pp. 127–8, 133.

100 Boulger, op. cit. p. 248.

101 See article on Kuo by Tu Lien-chê in Hummel, op. cit. Boulger (Halliday Macartney, p. 282) says that ‘During the whole of the summer of 1877 the Chinese envoys were the lions of the season’. He is wrong in supposing (p. 302) that Kuo's activity in London was purely ornamental.

102 Wade to Tenterden, 19 May 1877, F.O. 363/4.

103 Wade to Derby, Conf., 24 May 1877, F.O. 17/825.

104 Wade to Derby, Conf., 26 May 1877, F.O. 17/825.

105 Forsyth to Wade, Conf., 3 June 1877, F.O. 17/825.

106 India Office to F.O., Secret, 8 June 1877, F.O. 17/825.

107 Wade to Tenterden, Conf., 4 June 1877, F.O. 17/825.

108 Memo. of 12 June 1877, F.O. 17/825.

109 India Office to F.O., 14 June 1877, and Derby to Wade, 18 June 1877, F.O. 17/825.

110 Wade to Derby, 25 June 1877, F.O. 17/825.

111 Forsyth to Wade, 23 June 1877, F.O. 17/825.

112 India Office to F.O., Conf., 2 July 1877, F.O. 17/825.

113 D.N.B. (Rev. F. Sanders).

114 Wade to Tenterden, 29 June 1877, F.O. 363/4.

115 Derby to Kuo, 7 July 1877, F.O. 17/825.

116 India Office to F.O., Secret and Immediate, 7 July 1877, F.O. 17/825.

117 Wade to Tenterden, 8 July 1877, F.O. 363/4.

118 Wade to Tenterden, 10 July 1877, F.O. 363/4.

119 Kuo to Derby, 12 July 1877, F.O. 17/825.

120 Memo. by Hillier, 14 July 1877, F.O. 17/825.

121 Derby to Kuo, 23 July 1877, F.O. 17/825.

122 Wade to Derby, 25 July 1877, F.O. 17/825.

123 The Times, 16 July 1877, p. 5, col. 5.

124 Boulger, Yakoub Beg, pp. 250 ff.

125 Derby to Fraser, no. 90, 3 Aug. 1877, F.O. 17/825.

126 Fraser to Derby, tg. cyph., 27 Sept. 1877, and no. 172, Conf., 24 Sept. 1877, F.O. 17/825.

127 Extract from Russian World, with India Office to F.O., 28 July 1877, F.O. 17/825.

128 Schuyler, op. cit. 11, p. 325; Kuropatkin, op. cit. p. 78.

129 Fraser, no. 172 as above.

130 Article Tso Tsung-t'ang, see n. 72 above.

131 Fraser to Derby, tg. cyph., 13 Oct. 1877, F.O. 17/825.

132 Forsyth, introd. to Prejevalsky, op. cit. p. 11; Kuropatkin, op. cit. pp. 250–4. Russian Press accounts are enclosed with Loftus to Derby, no. 571, 23 Oct. 1877, F.O. 65/969. Dunmore, Lord, The Pamirs (1894), I, pp. 317 ff.Google Scholar, supports the theory that Yakub was poisoned; Hedin, Sven, Through Asia (1899), p. 862Google Scholar, gives a circumstantial poisoning story; Kuropatkin (op. cit. pp. 248–9) was told that he had been knocked on the head in a brawl.

133 Cordier, H., Relations de la Chine avec les Puissances Occidentales (1901), 11, p. 177Google Scholar; cp. Fraser to Derby, no. 41 Conf., 7 Mar. 1878, F.O. 17/826, and translation of a Chinese narrative with Hance, Acting Consul at Tientsin, to Lord Salisbury, Foreign Secretary, no. 19, 27 June 1878, ibid.

134 Fraser to Salisbury, no. 105 Conf., 22 June 1878, F.O. 17/826.

135 Quoted in Fraser to Salisbury, no. iii, 27 June 1878, F.O. 17/826.

136 Dunmore, op. cit. ii, p. 223, describes the tomb as he saw it a few years later. Stein, Aurel, Sand-Buried Ruins of Khotan (1903), pp. 135–7Google Scholar, describes the temple built near it by the Chinese to their victorious general.

137 Copy with Hance to Tenterden, 27 May 1878, F.O. 17/826; a similar memorial by Tso, obtained ‘indirectly’ and copied ‘hurriedly’, is with Fraser to Salisbury, no. 8, 13 March 1879, ibid. One of Boulger's objects in writing his Yakoub Beg was to exhibit ‘the great merits of China as a governing power’ (p. viii). F. E. Younghusband considered that the Chinese had set up ‘a rule remarkable for its mildness’ (Proc.R.G.S. x (n.s.), 1888, p. 502; cp. his The Heart of a Continent (1904), ch. vi, and pp. 270 ff.). But the old China was running down, in this as in other fields. Cobbold (op. cit. pp. 58, 287) thought her régime here good for agriculture, but otherwise ‘nothing else but plain and open robbery’.

138 Elias's report with Foreign Dept., Simla, to India Office, no. 228, Secret, 6 Nov. 1879, F.O. 17/826. Some Russian Press reports, highly critical of Chinese behaviour and representing the natives as longing for liberation by Russia, are quoted in Parl. Papers 1880, lxxviii, ‘Central Asia, no. 1’, pp. 14, 42–3. A Russian who explored in 1879–80 from Kulja to Turfan wrote similarly (trans, in Proc.R.G.S. iii (n.s.), 1881, pp. 340–52).

139 Sumner, op. cit. pp. 479, 513–14; Malleson, op. cit. p. 450. Lord Lytton broke off negotiations with Afghanistan in March.

140 Andrew, P., Our Scientific Frontier (1880), p. 95Google Scholar.

141 See the Duke of Argyll, The Eastern Question (1879), ch. xviii, for a criticism of this Afghan policy.

142 18 July 1877, p. 9, cols. 4–5.

143 Cp. the article ‘Kuldja’ in Proc.R.G.S. 11 (n.s.), 1880, pp. 489 ff.

144 De Geofroy to Waddington, Foreign Minister, no. 41, 29 Jan. 1879; Japon, Corr. Politique, vol. 27, Archives of the Foreign Ministry, Paris.

145 Text of the treaty in Parl. Papers 1882, lxxx, ‘China, no. 1.’ Frontier demarcation was still in progress several years later; see Proc.R.G.S. ix (n.s.), 1887, p. 508.

146 von Le Coq, A., Buried Treasures of Chinese Turkestan (trans. Barwell, A., 1928), p. 112 n.Google Scholar; cp. Hartmann, op. cit. p. ii, Cobbold, op. cit. pp. 254, 288, and Deasy, H. H. P., In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan (1901), pp. 291 ff., 354Google Scholar.

147 The post was soon filled by George Macartney, son of Sir Halliday, who still held it (1910–18) when it became a consulate-general.

148 Sir R. Hart, Inspector-General of Customs, Peking, to Sir J. Pauncefote, Under-Secretary, 28 Mar. 1886, F.O. 17/1062.

149 Memo. by G. E. P. Hertslet, 19 Sept. 1901, F.O. 17/1583: China Tariff Commission Archives, vol. xi. In these negotiations leading to the Anglo-Chinese treaty of Sept. 1902 it was decided not to introduce any but minor questions affecting Kashgharia (Lord Lansdowne to Sir J. Mackay, Special Commissioner at Shanghai, no. 3, 2 Oct. 1901, ibid.). Already in 1889 Bell had found Russian trade much more active than British (Proc.R.G.S. 1890, p. 92).

150 13 May 1878; Proc.R.G.S. xxii, 1877–78, pp. 288–91.

151 Economist, 21 Dec. 1878, p. 1487. Some doubting Thomases remained; Vambéry argued in the Nineteenth Century (June 1900, pp. 925–6) that Kashghar had been overthrown by internal faction, not by ‘the disorderly rabble, called Chinese Army’.