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I. The History of Rome and Italy in the Second Century B.C.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 December 2011

A. H. McDonald
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Extract

The seventy-five years from the Second Punic War to the legislation of Tiberius Gracchus were critical years in the history of Rome. Within this period Rome imposed her will on the Hellenistic world and brought the West under her sway. The foundations of the Empire were laid in these years. Yet the period closes with violence and blood-shed in Rome herself and the seeds of civil war in Italy. The strain of conquest and the immensity of success disturbed the stability which had made the victory possible. Imperial rule called for changes in administration; deep economic movements began to touch the life of the people; but the strength of tradition, political and social, and the dominance of the Senate limited their range of vision. The result was to provoke, whether or not it was justified, an attempt at revolutionary reform.

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Cambridge Historical Journal , Volume 6 , Issue 2 , 1939 , pp. 124 - 146
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1939

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References

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24 The commission for the founding of Luca was appointed in 180 (livy XL, 43, 1), and, allowing for the normal time of about two years for its work (cf Careopino, , Autour des Gracques, 137–9)Google Scholar, we may date its foundation to 178; the record may haw stood under this year in the lost part of Livy XLI. Velleius 1, 15, 2 (177) has miscalculated. After Salmon's explanation of the ius duodecim coloniarum (J.R.S. XXVI (1936), 58–61)Google Scholar, there is no reason to reject the record of Luea (as Salmon, , C[lassical] Q[uarterly], XXVII (1933), 30–5). Luna (177): livy XLI, 13, 4–5Google Scholar.

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29 2000 men with 5 iugera at Mutina and 8 iugera at Parma (livy XXXIX, 55,7);2000 men with 6½ iugera at Luna (livy XLI, 13, 4–5: reading VIS for LIS).

30 Livy XXXIX, 55, 5: “nee satis constabat utrum Latinam an civium Romanorum deduci placeret”; XL, 34, 2; XLIII, 17, 1. Cf. Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 428-9Google Scholar.

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35 Cicero, , de repub. II, 31, 54Google Scholar; Malcovati, , Or. Rom. frag. 1Google Scholar “Cato”, XXVI, fr. 137; Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 530–1;Google ScholarBloch, and Carcopino, , Hist. rom. II, 145–6Google Scholar.

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42 Livy XL, 42, 13 (180 B.C.).

43 Plutarch, , Titus 18, 1,Google Scholar

44 Livy XXXVIII, 36, 8.

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46 11. 22 seq.: “Haicc utei in coventionid exdeicatis ne minus trinum noundinum, senatuosqne sententiam utei scientes esetis,—eorum sententia its fuit: ‘sei ques esent, quel arvorsum ead fecisent, quam suprad scriptnm est, eeis rein caputalem faciendam censuere’—atque utei hoce in tabolam ahenam inceideretis, ita senatus aiquom censuit, uteique earn figier ioubeatis ubei facilumed gnoscier potisit.” See Fraenkel, , Hermes, LXVII (1932), 369seq.Google Scholar; cf. Keil, , Hermes, LXVIII (1933), 306seq.Google Scholar; Krause, , Hermes, LXXI (1936), 214seq.Google Scholar; Gelzer, , Hermes, LXXI (1936), 275seq.Google Scholar; Accame, , Riv[ista di] fil[ologia] (N.S.), XVI (1938), 225seqGoogle Scholar.

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49 Frank, , C.A.H. VIII, 341–2;Google ScholarEcon. Sur. 1, 158 seq.; Block, and Carcopino, , Hist. rom. II, 161seqGoogle Scholar

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52 Livy XLI, 8, 6–12; 9, 9–12; XLII, 10, 3. Frank, , C.A.H. VIII, 354–6Google Scholar; cf. Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 569 70Google Scholar; Bloch, and Carcopino, , Hist. rom. II, 139–41Google Scholar.

53 Iivy XLI, 8, 8.

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55 Livy XXXIX, 38, 6–12; XL, I, 4; 16, 9; 35, 7; 39, 4; 40, 14; 41, 8–11; XLI, 10,6–10.

56 Flamininus (194): 250 asses (Livy XXXIV, 52, 11); L. Scipio (189); 25 denarii (Livy XXXVII, 59, 6); Fulvius Nobilior (187): 25 denarii (Livy XXXIX, 5, 17); Manlius Vulso (187): 42 denarii (Livy XXXIX, 7, 2); Fulvius Flaccns (180): 50 denarii (Livy XL, 43. 7); Fulvius Flaccus (179):300 asses (Livy XL, 59, 2), even when there had been no spoil in money; Gracchus and Aibinus (178): 25 denarii (Livy XLI, 7, 3). These donatives are the same for allies as for Romans. Claudius Pulcher (177): 15 denarii to Romans, half to allies (Livy XLI, 13,7-8), presumably on account of the need to meet the legionaries' demands from limited spoil. The Latins receive their full share again with Aemilius Paullus (167): 100 denarii (Livy XLV, 40, 5), and Anicius (167): 45 denarii (Livy XLV, 43. 7: “soclis nominis Latini quantum civibus”). Cf. Frank, , Econ. Sur.. I, 147Google Scholar.

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58 Livy, 19,11; 44,2. Münzer, , Röm[ische] Adelsparteien [und Adelsfamilien], 198n.1Google Scholar

59 Livy XL, 44, 1. Mommsen, , Röm[isches] Staatsrecht, I 3, 527seq.Google Scholar; Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV i, 509–11;Google ScholarBloch, and Carcopino, , Hist. rom. II, 43–4Google Scholar. For the need cf. Livy XXXIX, 32, 5–13; 39, 1–15

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63 Livy XXXIX, 44, 5–7 (cf. above, n. 50); XL, 51, 2–7 (a year's vectigal, cf. Licy XL, 46, 16). Frank, , Econ. Sur. I, 184–5Google Scholar.

64 Livy XL, 51,9: “mutarant suffragia regionatimque generibus hominum causisque et quaestibus tribus descripserunt.” Sanctis, De, St. Rom.. IV, i, 606Google Scholar. On the state of the Comitia Centuriata (after the reform of 241 B.C.), see Sanctis, De, St. Rom. III, i, 353seq.Google Scholar, and Bloch, and Carcopino, , Hist. rom. II, 17seqGoogle Scholar.

65 Livy XLV, 15, 1–2: for discussion of this passage, see below, n. 96, and cf. n. 75.

66 Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 606:Google Scholar “una concessione alla borghesia dei negozlanti, Industriali, affaristi, impiegati che si moltiplicava in Roma”.

67 Livy XLI, 27, 5–13; XLII, 1, 6; 8, 4; 9, 7; 19, 1–2.

68 Livy XLI, 27, 13; XLII, 10, 4; XLIII, 16, 2–16; XLIV, 16, 8; XLV, 15, 8. Frank, , Econ. Sur. I, 150Google Scholar.

69 Fasti cons. ad 172 B.C.: “ambo priml de plebe”.

70 Alcaeus and Philiscus were expelled in 173 or 154 (Athenaeus 12, 68, p. 547), probably in 173, before the general expulsion of 161 (cf. below, p. 140).

71 livy XLII, 3,1-11; 7, 3–9, 6; 10, 5; 10, 9–15; 21, 1–22,8; 28,12. Cf. XLII, 1,6-12.

72 Livy XLIII, 2, 1–12; cf. also Livy XLIII, 3, 1–4.

73 Livy XLII, 4, 3–4 {173); cf. XLI, 16, 8. Romans received 10 iugera, Latins 3 iugera; they were no doubt mainly veterans from the armies of Claudius Pulcher and Gracchus, the legionaries being satisfied before distribution to the allies.

74 Strabo 4,6, 12 (quoting Polybius). Mattingly, and Robinson, , Date Rom. Den. 22–3Google Scholar.

75 Livy XLI, 17, 1–4; 28, 8–10; Plutarch, , Ti. Gracchus 1Google Scholar; cf. Festus 428 L: “Sardi venales, alius alie nequior”. Livy XLV, 15, 1, with n. 96 below; cf. above, p. 134.

76 Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 270seq.Google Scholar; cf. Livy XLII, 30, 8–31, 5; 32, 6.

77 Livy XLII, 32, 7–35, 2; XLIII, 11, 10; 14, 7.

78 Cf. Livy, , Per. XLIIIGoogle Scholar; XLIII, 1, 4–12; 4, 5–13; 5, 1–10; 6, 2–3; 7, 5–8, 10.

79 livy XLIII, 16, 1–16.

80 Livy XLIV, 17, 4–10; 21, 1–22, 15; 34, 1–9; C.I.L. 12, p. 194; Polybius XXIX, 1; Plutarch, , Aemilius 10–11Google Scholar; Justinus 33, 1, 6.

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82 Livy XLV, 40, 1; Velleius 1, 9, 6; Diodorus 31, 8,11; Plutarch, , Aemilius 32–3,38;Google ScholarPliny, , N.H. 33, 56:Google Scholar “intulit…Paulus…e Macedonica praeda [MMM], a quo tempore populus Romanus tributum pendere desüt.” Sanctia, De, St. Rom., IV, i, 351 n. 302Google Scholar. Note, also, the cheap labour resulting from, the Molossian enslavement (Polybius XXX, 15; Livy XLV, 341–7; Plutarch, , Aemilius 29)Google Scholar.

83 Livy XLV, 18, 3–4; 29, 11.

84 See Sanctis, De, St. Rom. III, i, 205seqGoogle Scholar.

85 Polybius VI, 12, 1–10; 15, 2–11.

86 Polybius vi, 13, 1–9; 17, 1–8. Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 515seqGoogle Scholar.

87 .Polybius VI, 14, 3,-12; 16, 1–5; 17, 1–8. Frank, , Econ. Sur. I, 148seq., 156–7Google Scholar.

88 Polybius VI, 11, 11–13; 18, 1,-8. For Polybius's change to the άνακúκλωσιѕdoctrine later, see in particular Sanctis, De, St. Rom. III, i, 205seq; cf below, p. 1,45Google Scholar.

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90 Granius Licinianus, XXVIII, p. 9.

91 Frank, , C.A.H. VIII, 336seq.Google Scholar; cf. Zancan, , Ager publicus, 31seq.Google Scholar; Heichelheim, , Wirtschaftsgesch. 623seq.; 1108–1111Google Scholar.

92 Gummerus, , “Der röm[ische] Gutsbetrieb”, Klio, Beiheft V (1906)Google Scholar; Heitland, , Agricola, 164seqGoogle Scholar; Hoerle, Catos Hausbücher; Frank, , Econ. Sur. I, 160seqGoogle Scholar.

93 de agri cult. 1, 7; X-XI; CXLIV.

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99 Frank, , Econ. Sur. I, 183, 288Google Scholar.

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104 Livy, , Per. XLVI:Google Scholar “cui ea provincia evenerat”.

105 Pliny, N.H. 33, 78.Google ScholarFrank, , Econ. Sur. I 263–4Google Scholar

106 Pliny, , N.H. 3, 138Google Scholar “Vetere consulto patrum Italiae parci iubendium”, cf ibid. 37, 202: “metallis auri, argenti, aeris, ferrim quamdiu licuit exercere, nullis cessit terris”.

107 As Pais, Dalle guerre puniche, II, 595seqGoogle Scholar. The Senate will hardly have acted for the interests of the publicani in Spain (as Frank, , Econ. Sur. I 180, 263–4)Google Scholar

108 Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 572–3;Google ScholarHeichelheim, , Wirtschaftsgesch. 631Google Scholar.

109 Pliny, , N.H. 33, 55Google Scholar.

110 Sanctis, De, St. Rom., IV, i, 489seq.Google Scholar; Bloch, and Carcopino, , Hist. rom. II, 98seqGoogle Scholar.

111 Suetonius, , de rhet. IGoogle Scholar; Gellius, , N.A. 15, II, IGoogle Scholar; Plutarch, , Cato 22Google Scholar; Pliny, , N.H. 7, 112Google Scholar; Livy, , Per. XLVIII:Google Scholar “tamquam. inutile nociturum publicis moribus”.

112 McDonald, , J.R.S. XXVIII (1938), 155; seq.; 162 n. 81Google Scholar. Cf. Colin, , Rome, 524seq.Google Scholar; Bloch, and Carcopino, , Hist. rom. II, 46seqGoogle Scholar.

113 McDonald, , J.R.S. XXVIII (1938), 154. seq., 163–4Google Scholar.

114 Lex Fannia cibaria (Gellius, , N.A. 2, 24, 2–3Google Scholar; Macrobius 3, 17, 3;, Pliny, , N.H. 10, 139Google Scholar; Athenaeus 6, 108); Livy, , Per. XLVIIGoogle Scholar.

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116 See, above all, Schulten, , Numantia, I, 264seqGoogle Scholar; C.A.H. VIII, 322–3.

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118 Cf. Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 473–4:Google Scholar “volevano che il loro dominio fosse cementato non dai buoni trattamenti verso i soggetti, ma dalla assoluta impotenza dei soggetti a resistere… nè è meraviglia che cio facesse trascurare la pietà pei concittadini che soffrivano e monvano nelle trinee”.

119 Livy XXIV, 17, 5–11; Plutarch, , Cato 10,Google ScholarAppian, , Iber. 41Google Scholar, Polybius XXV, i, cf Livy XL, 49, I; XLI, 28, 8–9; Polybius XXX, 15; Livy XLV, 34, 1–7, Plutarch, , Aemilius 29.Google ScholarSanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 478Google Scholar. Compare also the treatment of Rhodes and Pergamum (Sanctis, De, St. Rom. IV, i, 352seq)Google Scholar.

120 Frank, , Rom. Imp. 228seq., 233 seq.Google Scholar; on Scipio Nasica's opposition to the destruction of Carthage, note Gelzer, , Philologus, LXXXI (1931), 261seqGoogle Scholar.

121 Cf. Schulten, , Numantia, I, 268–9Google Scholar.

122 Capelle, , Klio, XXV (1932), 86seg.Google Scholar; cf. Heichelheim, , Wirtschaftsgesch. 640seq.; 1114–6Google Scholar.

123 Livy, , Per. XLVIIGoogle Scholar; Cassiodorus, , Chron. ad 153Google Scholar, B.C.; C.I.L. I2 p. 231; Mommsen, , Röm. Staatsrecht, I 3, 599Google Scholar; Appian, , Iber. 48Google Scholar(Marcellus had been consul in, 166 and 155).

124 Polybius XXXV, 4; Appian, , Iber. 49Google Scholar; Livy, , Per. XLVIIGoogle Scholar.

125 Cf. Cicero, , Brut. 27, 106Google Scholar; de off. 11, 21, 75; Verr. III, 84, 195; IV, 25, 56; Livy, , Per. XLVII.Google ScholarFerguson, , J.R.S. XI (1921), 86seqGoogle Scholar.

126 Appian, , Iber. 51–2, 59–60, 70, 79, 80–3Google Scholar; Plutarch, , Ti. Gracchus 5.Google ScholarSchulten, , Numantia, I, 266–9Google Scholar.

127 Appian, , Iber. 49, 65, 78Google Scholar; cf. Polybius VI, 19, 2. Schulten, , Numantia, I, 272 n. 3Google Scholar.

128 Livy, , Per. L, LVIGoogle Scholar; Malcovati, , Or. Rom, frag. IGoogle Scholar, “Cato”, XLIII, fr. 175–6; Appian, , Lib. 112Google Scholar; Iber. 84. Sanctis, De, St. Rom., IV, i, 502–3; 511 n. 60Google Scholar.

129 Cf. Bloch, and Carcopino, , Hist. rom. II, 142–3;Google ScholarHeichelheim, , Wirtschaftsgesch. 639Google Scholar.

130 Appian, Bell. civ. 1, 7: οί μὲν δυνατοì πάμπαν ὲπλοúτουν, καì τὸ τῶν θεραπόντων íαιѕτρυχομένουѕ πενία τε καì ὲσΦοραîѕ καì στρατε Cf. Plutarch, , Ti. Gracchus 8, 3:Google Scholar On Appian, see Caropino, , Autour des Gracques, 5seqGoogle Scholar.

131 Cf.Pliny, , N.H. 33, 141Google Scholar; Frontinus, , de Aq. I, 7.Google ScholarFrank, , Econ. Sur. I, 226Google Scholar.

132 Appian, , Iber. 65; Lib. 115–16Google Scholar.

133 Appian, , Bell. civ. I, 7:Google Scholar τοùѕ δ' Ἰταλιώταѕ…τρ υχομένουѕ πενíą τε καì ὲσΦοραîѕ πλουσíων ἐχομένηѕ καì λεωργοîѕ χρωμένων θεράπουσιν ἀντì έλευθέρων

134 Livy, , Per. LVGoogle Scholar; Epit. Oxyr. 204.

135 Appian, Iber. 78; cf. ibid. 84.

136 Plutarch, , Ti. Gracchus 8, 4:Google Scholar ὲπεχεíρησε μὲν οûν τῇ διορθώσει Γάïοѕ Δαíλιοѕ ὁ ἑπεκλήθη σοΦὸѕ ἣ Φρόνιμοѕ

137 Mütnzer, , Röm. Adelsparteien, 245seqGoogle Scholar.

138 Polybius XXXV, 4; Appian, , Lib. 115–16;Google ScholarIber. 84–7, 98; Schulten, , Numantia, I, 278–80Google Scholar.

139 This follows from his action in defence of the Italian allies against the Gracchan land commission, which was violating their autonomous rights (Cicero, , de repub. I, 19, 31; III, 29, 41Google Scholar; Appian, , Bell. civ. I, 18),Google ScholarAppian, , Bell. civ. I, 19Google Scholar. See Carcopino, , Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé, XXII (1929), 4seqGoogle Scholar.

140 Malcovati, , Or. Rom. frag. 1Google Scholar, “P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus”; II, fr. 6–8; v, fr. 11–12; VI, fr. 13–16; IX, fr. 20. Cf. Velleius II, 4, 4. Greenidge, , Hist. Rome, I, 102seqGoogle Scholar.

141 The settlement of veterans in 200 (see above, n. 11) and the viritane settlement of 173 (see above, n. 73). Scipio, as is reflected in Polybius (Polyb. 11, 21, 7), did not approveof Tiberius Gracchus's “Flaminian” aims in land settlement. He would not let it affect the relations with the Confederation (see above, n. 139). And, above all, he would not tolerate the constitutional irregularities by which Tiberius had gained his ends. Diodorus 34, 7, 3; Plutarch, , Ti. Gracchus 21, 3:Google Scholar ώѕ ἀπόλοιτο καì gἅλλοѕ ὅ τιѕ τοιαûτά γε ῥέζοι. Schulten, , Numantia, I, 279Google Scholar.

142 Livy, , Epit. Oxyr. 193–4;Google ScholarCicero, , de leg. III, 16, 35Google Scholar.

143 Polybius VI, 57:ôταν γὰρ…πολιτεíα…εìѕ úπεροχὴν καì δυναστεíαν ὰδήριτον ἐπιγραΦὴν τῆѕ μεταβολῆѕ ὀ δῆμοѕ Cf. above, n. 88.

144 Compare Cobban's study of the position, in Sultan times: Senate and Provinces (78-49 B.C.).

145 See Schur, Scipio Africams (cf. McDonald, , J.R.S. XXVIII (1938), 153seq.)Google Scholar Gelzer, Die Nobilität der römischen Republik; Münzer, Röm. Adebparteien; Bloch, and Carcopino, , Hist. rom. II, 171seqGoogle Scholar.