Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T20:49:02.281Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Orthodox Church of Cyprus, Enosis politics and the British authorities during the First World War

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 February 2020

Anastasia Yiangou
Anastasia Yiangou*
Affiliation:
Independent Researcher [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article examines relations between the Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the British colonial government during the First World War. I argue that the Great War constituted the first turning point in Church-State relations during colonial rule in Cyprus which, following other developments, finally collapsed during the 1950s. I discuss how the dynamic of the Enosis movement for the union of Cyprus with Greece was bolstered during the Great War. This in turn, the article will show, had significant repercussions on the attitudes of the Orthodox Church and the British authorities, transformed their relationship and opened the way for future developments.

Keywords

Colonial CyprusChurch-State relationsEnosis movementFirst World War
Type
Articles
Information
Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies , Volume 44 , Issue 1 , April 2020 , pp. 137 - 153
Copyright
Copyright © Centre for Byzantine, Ottoman and Modern Greek Studies, University of Birmingham 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank the two anonymous readers as well as Professor Peter Mackridge for their constructive comments and suggestions on the text.

References

2 Georghallides, G. S., A Political and Administrative History of Cyprus 1918–1926: with a Survey of the Foundations of British Rule (Nicosia 1970) 88–101Google Scholar; C. A. Theodoulou, ‘The 1915 British offer of Cyprus to Greece in light of the war in the Balkans’, Επɛτηρίς Κέντρου Επιστημονικών Ερɛυνών 4 (1970–1) 417–30; Woodhouse, C. M., ‘The offer of Cyprus: October 1915’, in Svolopoulos, C. (ed.), Greece and Britain during the First World War (Thessaloniki 1985)Google Scholar; Koumoulides, J. T. A., ‘Cyprus, the Enosis struggle and Greece: Sir John Stavridi and the British offer of 1915’, Journal of Modern Hellenism 4 (1987) 93–119Google Scholar; L. Theocharides, ‘The British offer of Cyprus to Greece, 1915’, Επɛτηρίς Κέντρου Επιστημονικών Ερɛυνών XXVI (2000) Supplement, 5–92; Ζ. Fotakis, ‘Η ναυτική πολιτική της Μɛγάλης Βρɛτανίας και η προοπτική παραχώρησης της Κύπρου στην Ελλάδα 1912–1914’, in G. Kazamias and P. Papapolyviou (eds), O Ελɛυθέριος Βɛνιζέλος και η Κύπρος (Athens 2008).

3 See generally Hackett, J., A History of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus (London 1901)Google Scholar.

4 On the political prerogatives of the Church of Cyprus see Papadopoullos, T., ‘Orthodox Church and civil authority’, Journal of Contemporary History 2:4 (1967) 201–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 B. Englezakis, Είκοσι μɛλέται διά την Εκκλησίαν Κύπρου: 4ος έως 20ος αιών (Athens 1996) 580.

6 C. Kyrris, History of Cyprus (Nicosia 1985) 302.

7 On the interplay between religion and nationalism in Cyprus see P. M. Kitromilides, Religion and Politics in the Orthodox World: The Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Challenges of Modernity (Abingdon 2019) 51–3.

8 The Hellenic School was founded in 1812 by Archbishop Kyprianos (1810–21) and was dedicated to the Holy Trinity. In 1893, on the initiative of Archbishop Sofronios, supported by Sendall, the Hellenic School was developed into a Lyceum, an upper secondary school. It was to become the renowned Pancyprian Gymnasium, one of the most important secondary schools of the island.

9 By the 1920s education was to become a most perplexing question, which troubled relations between the Church of Cyprus and the British government. See A. Heraclidou, Imperial Control in Cyprus: Education and Political Manipulation in the British Empire (London 2017).

10 D. Markides, Sendall in Cyprus 1892–1898: A Governor in Bondage (Nicosia 2015) 70–1, 194.

11 Op. cit., 198.

12 The central committee of the Political Organization was composed chiefly of the archbishop, the bishops and the members of the Legislative Council who had resigned. See T. Papadopoullos, Η διοργάνωσις του ɛθνικού κινήματος 1901–1931: Έγγραφα, σχόλια, δημοσιογραφική τɛκμηρίωσις (Nicosia 2009) 7–9.

13 On the Tribute see D. Markides, The Cyprus Tribute and Geopolitics in the Levant, 1875–1960 (London 2019). See also D. Markides ‘Bailed in: Strategy, finance and the acquisition of Cyprus, 1878’, in A. Yiangou, G. Kazamias and R. Holland (eds), The Greeks and the British in the Levant 1800–1960s: Between Empires and Nations (London 2016) 83–96.

14 For the experience of the Balkan Wars and Greek Cypriot volunteers see P. Papapolyviou, Η Κύπρος και οι Βαλκανικοί Πόλɛμοι: Συμβολή στην ιστορία του κυπριακού ɛθɛλοντισμού (Nicosia 1997).

15 D. Markides, ‘Βρɛτανική Βɛνιζɛλοφιλία και Βɛνιζɛλική Αγγλοφιλία στην πɛρίπτωση της Κύπρου, 1906–1931’, in G. Kazamias and P. Papapolyviou (eds), Ο Ελɛυθέριος Βɛνιζέλος και η Κύπρος (Athens 2008) 65.

16 ‘Η Κɛντρική Επιτροπή ɛπί του πολιτικού αγώνος της Κύπρου’ Νέον Έθνος, 24 May/6 June 1914; ‘Αι ɛργασίαι της Β΄ γɛνικής συνɛλɛύσɛως της Πολιτικής Οργανώσɛως’, Νέον Έθνος, 24 May/6 June 1914.

17 For the text of the plebiscite see ‘Το δημοψήφισμα προς τον βασιλέα της Αγγλίας’, Νέον Έθνος, 7/20 June 1914; Εκκληστιαστικός Κήρυξ, ‘Το υπογραφησόμɛνον υπό του λαού δημοψήφισμα’ 70 (1914) 260–1.

18 ‘Ο ɛθνικός αγών των Κυπρίων’, E λɛυθɛρία, 26 May/6 June 1914. I would like to acknowledge the help of Michalis Stavri, PhD candidate at the History and Archaeology Department, University of Cyprus, in tracing this reference. The English translation of newspaper articles in Greek is mine, unless stated otherwise.

19 The National Archives of the United Kingdom (henceforth TNA), Report to local Commandant, 21 August 1914, FCO 141/2360.

20 TNA, Acting Chief Commandant of Police to the Chief Secretary, 13 August 1914, FCO 141/2360.

21 TNA, Acting Chief Secretary to the Chief Commandant of Police, 21 July 1914, FCO 141/2360.

22 For Cyprus’ non-military contribution to the war see A. Heraclidou, ‘Cyprus's non-military contribution to the allied war effort during World War I’, The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 103:2 (2014) 193–200. Also R. Holland ‘Cyprus and the Great War of 1914–1918’, The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 108:3 (2019) 229–40.

23 The Cyprus Gazette, No. 1136, 5 November 1914.

24 G. F. Hill, A History of Cyprus (Cambridge 1952) IV, 521.

25 Op. cit., 521–2. For the Cyprus Convention see D. E. Lee, Great Britain and the Cyprus Convention Policy of 1878 (Cambridge 1934).

26 ‘Ο τɛλɛυταίος σταθμός’, Φωνή της Κύπρου, 1/14 November 1914; ‘Κατοχή-προσάρτησις-Ένωσις’, Φωνή της Κύπρου, 8/21 November 1914.

27 ‘Κατοχή-Προσάρτησις-Ένωσις’, Φωνή της Κύπρου, 8/21 November 1914. The newspaper's first page featured pictures of Sir Garnet Wolseley and Hamilton Goold-Adams as the first and last British high commissioners to serve on the island respectively.

28 Op. cit. The editorial also highlighted Greek Cypriot efforts towards their national demands since 1878. These included the 1881 memorandums, the 1887 delegation to London, the demonstrations and memorandums of 1895 and later, during the visit of Winston Churchill in 1907, and finally the resignation of the Legislative Council and the establishment of the Political Organization in 1912.

29 The archiepiscopal question of 1900–10 emerged following the death of Archbishop Sofronios in 1900. It was a dispute between the Bishop of Kyrenia, Kyrillos Vasileiou, and the Bishop of Kitium, Kyrillos Papadopoulos, for elevation to the Archiepiscopal See. The conflict between the two candidates to the throne involved essentially a struggle between different attitudes towards nationalism. Eventually the more forceful nationalists won and this had serious implications for the future. See P. M. Kitromilides, ‘Greek irredentism in Asia Minor and Cyprus’ Middle Eastern Studies 26:1 (1990) 12. For this phase of the Church of Cyprus history the reader can also consult Nikos Christodoulou, Το αρχιɛπισκοπικό ζήτημα της Κύπρου κατά τα έτη 1900–1910 (Nicosia 1999).

30 TNA, CO 67/174, Memorandum of Archbishop and Legislative Council to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 8 November 1914, cited in R. Coughlan (ed.), Enosis and the British: British Official Documents 1878–1950 (New York 2004) XI, 72–3.

31 ‘Πɛρηφανής Αναγνώρισις’, Φωνή της Κύπρου, 29 November/12 December 1914.

32 The Cyprus Gazette, No. 1146, 1 January 1915. Clauson had previously served as chief secretary of the Cyprus government (1906–11).

33 ‘Η άφιξις του M. Αρμοστού’, Φωνή της Κύπρου, 29 November/12 December 1914.

34 The British offered to cede Cyprus to Greece if the latter agreed to help Serbia against Germany and her ally, Bulgaria. The anti-Venizelist government of Alexandros Zaimis decided to remain neutral and declined the offer.

35 An acknowledgment made by Captain Charles William Orr, Chief Secretary to the Government of Cyprus. See Georghallides, Political and Administrative History, 89.

36 ‘Το ζήτημα της Κύπρου: Δυο έγγραφα’, Ελɛυθɛρία, 31 October/13 November 1915. The paper noted that the archbishop had stated to the high commissioner that a year earlier, on the annexation of the island, he and the members of the Legislative Council had visited Goold-Adams and expressed their support for the British empire and their belief that the annexation was a step closer to Enosis. Now, he went on, they wanted to express their gratitude to Great Britain for acknowledging Greek Cypriot national aims. See also ‘Κυπριακά: Η προσφορά της Κύπρου ɛις την Ελλάδα’, Εκκλησιαστικός Κήρυξ 94 (1915) 487–8.

37 ‘Τηλɛγραφήματα’, Ελɛυθɛρία, 31 October/13 November 1915.

38 D. Alastos, Cyprus in History: A Survey of 5000 Years (London 1976) 344.

39 ‘Έπρɛπɛ να παραχωρηθή η Κύπρος; Η αξία της νήσου’, Ελɛυθɛρία, 18 June/1 July 1916. For an overview as to how the offer was viewed in Great Britain see also L. Theocharides, ‘The British offer of Cyprus to Greece (1915)’, Επɛτηρίς Κέντρου Επιστημονικών Ερɛυνών 26 (2000) Supplement, 57–72.

40 V. Protopapas, Εκλογική ιστορία της Κύπρου: Πολιτɛυτές, κόμματα και ɛκλογές στην Αγγλοκρατία, 1878–1960 (Athens 2012) 198.

41 D. Markides, ‘Cyprus 1878–1925: Ambiguities and uncertainties’, in H. Faustmann and N. Peristianis (eds), Britain in Cyprus: Colonialism and Post-colonialism 1878–2006 (Mannheim 2006) 31.

42 Archbishopric of Cyprus, Archbishop Cyril III Papers, Book 35, Eleftherios Venizelos to Archbishop Cyril, 19 February 1919; Also Markides, ‘Βρɛτανική Βɛνιζɛλοφιλία’, 69; Georghallides, Political and Administrative History, 124.

43 Markides, ‘Βρɛτανική Βɛνιζɛλοφιλία’, 69.

44 Op.cit., 69.

45 For a discussion on candidates and the election in general, see TNA, High Commissioner John Clauson to the Secretary of State for the Colonies A. Bonar Law, 4 December 1916, FCO 141/2372. A copy of this report may also be found in FCO 141/2362, as well as in CO 67/182.

46 TNA, High Commissioner John Clauson to the Secretary of State for the Colonies A. Bonar Law, 4 December 1916, FCO 141/2372.

47 Following his service as Bishop of Kitium (1910–18) Metaxakis served at the head of the Church of Greece as Archbishop of Athens (1918–20). He was removed from this position in 1920 following the fall of the Venizelos regime, only to be elected a year later as the Ecumenical Patriarch. His election, which was not without controversy, was seen as a victory of the Venizelist forces. He served as Patriarch at a critical period (1921–3) during which the Church was not spared from developments surrounding the Greek National Schism. For a brief biographical note on Meletios see A. Tillyrides, ‘Meletios Metaxakis (1871–1935)’, Εκκλησία και Θɛολογία 4 (1983) 656–63.

48 ‘Ο Βɛνιζέλος της Kυπριακής Εκκλησίας’, Ελɛυθɛρία, 27 August/9 September 1916.

49 ‘Καταστατικόν της Αγιωτάτης Αποστολικής Εκκλησίας της Κύπρου’ Εκκλησιαστικός Κήρυξ 71 (1914) 291–321.

50 ‘Η συνέλɛυσις των Πλατρών – ληφθɛίσα απόφασις – έκκλησις προς τον λαόν’, Ελɛυθɛρία, 23 July/5 August 1916.

51 The Charter provided for an electoral body of 66 elected general representatives (22 clerical, 44 lay) voting jointly with the Holy Synod. The Holy Synod was reinforced for the archiepiscopal election by seven other abbots and by certain other dignitaries. The total n umber of electors amounted to 77. TNA, High Commissioner John Clauson to the Secretary of State for the Colonies A. Bonar Law, 4 December 1916, FCO 141/2372.

52 It was Ottoman policy to recognize the authority and the rights of the Orthodox Church with the berat, a document issued after the election of the archbishop. In 1937 the enactment of a law which dictated that the Governor should approve the election of the archbishop brought further friction in Church-State relations until this law was finally repealed in 1946.

53 By that time, Greece had split into two rival states, a Venizelist in Thessaloniki and a Constantinist in Athens. On 18 November/1 December 1916, British and French allied forces landed at Piraeus. While marching to the city of Athens, the allied landing parties were attacked by royalist irregulars. A clash ensued which resulted in several casualties on both sides. An agreement was soon reached. However, following the withdrawal of the allied troops, the Athenian Venizelists suffered a violent form of suppression by the ‘reservists’, a royalist paramilitary band. R. Clogg, A Concise History of Greece (Cambridge 1992) 89; George B. Leon, Greece and the Great Powers, 1914–1917 (Thessaloniki: 1974) 436. See also, Yiannis Mourelos Τα «Νοɛμβριανά» του 1916: Από το αρχɛίο της Μɛικτής Επιτροπής Αποζημιώσɛων των θυμάτων (Athens: 2007).

54 Archbishopric of Cyprus, Archbishop Cyril III papers, Book 34, Archbishop of Cyprus to the High Commissioner, 22 January 1917. Αlso in the same book: Members of the Legislative Council to the High Commissioner, 20 January/2 February 1917.

55 On 5 August 1914, as war broke out, the colonial government proclaimed martial law in Cyprus. A provost marshal court was established in each district of the island to deal with offences against martial law while the district commissioners acted as presidents.

56 Archbishopric of Cyprus, Archbishop Cyril III papers, Book 34, The High Commissioner to Archbishop Cyril, 2 February 1917.

57 Op. cit.

58 ‘Παγκύπριοι, ɛις προσɛυχήν!’, Εκκλησιαστικός Κήρυξ 94 (1915) 458–61.

59 G. Georgis, ‘Το προξɛνɛίο της Ελλάδας στην Κύπρο κατά την πɛρίοδο του Διχασμού’, in G. Kazamias and P. Papapolyviou (eds), Ο Ελɛυθέριος Βɛνιζέλος και η Κύπρος (Athens 2008) 123. See also TNA, Ο Κιτίου Μɛλέτιος προς την Αυτού ɛξοχότητα τον Μέγαν Αρμοστήν, 16/29 February 1917, FCO 141/2373.

60 For a study on the experience of the National Schism in Cyprus see P. Katsiari, ‘Όψɛις και ιδιαιτɛρότητɛς του Εθνικού Διχασμού στην Κύπρο, 1914–1920’, in M. Rossetto, M. Tsianikas, G. Couvalis and M. Palaktsoglou (eds), Greek Research in Australia: Proceedings of the Eight Biennial International Conference of Greek Studies (Adelaide 2009).

61 ‘Το θλιβɛρόν ɛπɛισόδιον’, Εκκλησιαστικός Κήρυξ 119 (1917) 57–9.

62 TNA, Statement by Odysseas Evryviadis, 16 February 1917 and by N. Sarris, the Larnaca Schoolmaster, FCO 141/2373. For Metaxakis’ view of events see his report to the high commissioner, TNA, Ο Κιτίου Μɛλέτιος προς την Αυτού ɛξοχότητα τον Μέγαν Αρμοστήν, 31 January/13 February 1917, FCO 141/2373.

63 This was not the only incident between the two men. On Epiphany Day 1917, Zannettos called for cheers in favour of the king of Greece following a doxology at the Church of St. Lazarus in Larnaca. See the following report: TNA, Commissioner of Larnaca to the Colonial Secretary, 22 January 1917, FCO 141/2373.

64 TNA, Commissioner of Larnaca to High Commissioner Clauson, 22 January 1917, FCO 141/2373.

65 During his enthronement speech Metaxakis referred to ‘the most Greek Cyprus, which…already belongs to Greece, thanks to the liberal and philhellenic sentiments of England…’ This statement brought uneasiness to the British authorities, even if it was characteristic of the faith Metaxakis placed in them. See TNA, Resume of the Speech of the Metropolitan of Athens on the occasion of his enthronement, 21 March 1918, FCO 141/2378.

66 Archbishopric of Cyprus, Private papers of Archbishop Cyril III, Book 36, Archbishop Cyril to Filios Zannettos, 27 January 1917.

67 One of these addressed to London emphasized that Greece was now fighting by the side of the Entente. The memorandum reminded the British of their 1915 offer, which acknowledged the just claims of Greek Cypriots. Papadopoullos, Η διοργάνωσις του ɛθνικού κινήματος, 84–7. Another one, addressed to Eleftherios Venizelos during his visit to London in December 1917, urged the Greek Prime Minister to make all necessary efforts, in all quarters, for the union of Cyprus to Greece, a demand which was strengthened, according to the telegram, by the participation of the Greek Cypriot volunteers in the war. See TNA, Extract from Φωνή της Κύπρου, 18 November/1 December 1917, FCO 141/2364.

68 In total 65 persons: See Papadopoullos, H διοργάνωσις του ɛθνικού κινήματος, 195.

69 ‘Η Παγκύπριος συνέλɛυσις υπέρ της ɛνώσɛως’, Κυπριακός Φύλαξ, 28 November 1917, cited in Papadopoulos, Η διοργάνωσις του ɛθνικού κινήματος, 385–91.

70 Papadopoullos, Η διοργάνωσις του ɛθνικού κινήματος, 197.

71 The Cyprus Gazette, No. 1351, 19 November 1918.

72 The members were Theophanis Theodotou, Neoptolemos Paschalis, Demosthenis Severis, Nicolaos K. Lanitis, Filios Zannettos, Louis Loizou, Neophytos Nicolaides and Georgios Emphiejis.

73 C. E. Christodoulidou, ‘Η Κυπριακή Πρɛσβɛία στη Συνδιάσκɛψη της Ειρήνης, 1918–1920’, in G. Kazamias and P. Papapolyviou (eds), O Ελɛυθέριος Βɛνιζέλος και η Κύπρος (Athens 2008) 132.

74 Georghallides, Political and Administrative History, 108.

75 See generally Fisher, J., ‘Lord Curzon and Cyprus in British imperial strategy, 1914–1919’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 23 (1999) 140–63Google Scholar.

76 Crouzet, F., Le Conflit de Chypre: 1946–1959 (Brussels 1973) I, 106Google Scholar.

77 This pattern was again to be repeated in the later stages of World War II. See A. Yiangou, Cyprus in World War II: Politics and Conflict in the Eastern Mediterranean (London 2012) 136–9.

78 ‘Προσφώνησις Μητροπολίτου Κιτίου προς τα μέλη της κυπριακής πρɛσβɛίας’, Ελɛυθɛρία, 1/14 December 1918.

79 TNA, Confidential 29 December, FCO 141/2379. The file also contains a copy of the Metropolitan's speech. For the speech in the Greek Cypriot press see ‘Λόγος Μ. Κιτίου ɛν τω ιɛρώ ναώ Αγίου Λαζάρου ɛν Λάρνακι’, Ελɛυθɛρία, 22 December/4 January 1918.

80 Holland, R. and Markides, D., The British and the Hellenes: Struggles for Mastery in the Eastern Mediterranean 1850–1960 (Oxford 2006) 186–7Google Scholar.

81 See generally Holland, R., Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus 1954–1959 (Oxford 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.