Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T12:25:42.760Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Possibility of Virtue

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Miguel Alzola*
Affiliation:
Fordham University
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

To have a virtue is to possess a certain kind of trait of character that is appropriate in pursuing the moral good at which the virtue aims. Human beings are assumed to be capable of attaining those traits. Yet, a number of scholars are skeptical about the very existence of such character traits. They claim a sizable amount of empirical evidence in their support. This article is concerned with the existence and explanatory power of character as a way to assess the possibility of achieving moral virtue, with particular attention paid to business context. I aim to unsettle the so-called situationist challenge to virtue ethics. In the course of this article, I shall defend four claims, namely, that virtues are more than just behavioral dispositions, that at least some virtues may not be unitary traits, that psychologists cannot infer virtues from overt behavior, and that the situationist data do not account for the observational equivalence of traits. Since it rests on a misconception of what virtue is, the situationist objection remains unconvincing.

Type
Special Issue: Reviving Traditions: Virtue and the Common Good in Business and Management
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2012

References

REFERENCES

Adams, R.M. 2006. A Theory of Virtue: Excellence in Being for the Good. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alzola, M. 2008. “Character and Environment: The Status of Virtues in Organizations,” Journal of Business Ethics 78: 34357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alzola, M. 2010. “Business, Ethics, and Psychological Realism,” in Best Papers Proceedings of the Seventieth Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, ed. Toombs, Leslie A. Available athttp://business.fordham.edu/files/Business_ethics_and_psychological_realism.pdf.Google Scholar
Alzola, M. 2011. “The Reconciliation Project: Separation and Integration in Business Ethics Research,” Journal of Business Ethics 99 (1): 1936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alzola, M. 2012. “The Empirics of Virtue Theory: What Can Psychology Tells Us about Moral Character?,” in Handbook of Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics, ed. Lütge, ChristophBerlin: Springer Publishing Company, Inc..Google Scholar
Annas, J. 1993. The Morality of Happiness. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Annas, J. 2003. “Virtue Ethics and Social Psychology,” A Priori 2: 2033.Google Scholar
Annas, J. 2004. “Being Virtuous and Doing the Right Thing,” Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association 78 (2): 6175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Annas, J. 2011. Intelligent Virtue. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anscombe, G.E.M. 1958. “Modern Moral Philosophy,” Philosophy 33: 119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Appiah, K.A. 2008. Experiments in Ethics. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Aristotle, . 1999. Nicomachean Ethics (NE), 2nd ed., trans. Irwin, T.H.Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Armstrong, D.M.Martin, C.B. and Place, U.T. 1996. Dispositions: A Debate. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Asch, S.E. 1956. “Studies of Independence and Conformity: A Minority of One against a Unanimous Majority,” Psychological Monographs 70 (9): 170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Athanassoulis, N. 2000. “A Response to Harman: Virtue Ethics and Character Traits,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society: 100: 21522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Audi, R. 1979. “Weakness of Will and Practical Judgment,” Noûs 13 (2): 17396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Audi, R. 1988. “On Some Limits and Resources of Common-Sense Psychology,” in Theory and Decision, ed. Eberlein, Gerald E. and Berghel, Harold L.Dordrecht: D.Riedel Publishing Co., 327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Audi, R. 1997. Moral Knowledge and Ethical Character. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badhwar, N.K. 1996. “The Limited Unity of Virtue,” Noûs. 30 (3): 30629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Badhwar, N.K. 2009. “The Milgram Experiments, Learned Helplessness, and Character Traits,” The Journal of Ethics 13 (2–3): 25789.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baron, R.A. 1997. “The Sweet Smell ofx2026;Helping: Effects of Pleasant Ambient Fragrance on Prosocial Behavior in Shopping Malls,” Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 23: 498503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, L.F.Mesquita, B.Ochsner, K.N. and Gross, J.J. 2007. “The Experience of Emotion,” Annual Review of Psychology 58: 373403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baston, C.Coke, J.Chard, F.Smith, D. and Taliaferro, A. 1979. “Generality of the ‘Glow of Goodwill’: Effects of Mood on Helping and Information Acquisition,” Social Psychology Quarterly 42: 17679.Google Scholar
Blass, T. 1991. “Understanding Behavior in the Milgram Obedience Experiment: The Role of Personality, Situations, and Their Interactions,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60: 398413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boring, E.G. 1953. “A History of Introspection,” Psychological Bulletin 50: 16989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brandt, R. 1970. “Traits of Character: A Conceptual Analysis,” American Philosophical Quarterly 7: 2337.Google Scholar
Brief, A.P.Buttram, R.T.Elliot, J.D.Reizenstein, R.M. and McCline, R.L. 1995. “Releasing the Beast: A Study of Compliance with Orders to Use Race as a Selection Criteria,” Journal of Social Issues 51: 17793.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brief, A.P.Dietz, J.Reizenstein Cohen, R.Pugh, S.D. and Vaslow, J.B. 2000. “Just Doing Business: Modern Racism and Obedience to Authority as Explanations for Employment Discrimination,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 81: 7297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, M.Treviño, L.K. and Harrison, D. 2005. “Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 97: 11734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burger, J.M. 2009. “Replicating Milgram: Would People Still Obey Today?,” American Psychologist 64: 111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burton, R. 1963. “Generality of Honesty Reconsidered,” Psychological Review 70: 48189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, A.H. 1989. “Personality as Traits,” American Psychologist 44: 137888.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cao, M. and Wei, J. 2005. “Stock Market Returns: A Note on Temperature Anomaly,” Journal of Banking and Finance 29 (6): 155973.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carnap, R. 1936–1937. “Testability and Meaning,” Philosophy of Science 3: 41971, and 4: 140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatman, J.A. 1989. “Improving Interactional Organizational Research: A Model of Person-Organization Fit,” Academy of Management Review 14: 33349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, J.M. 1998. “The Unity of Virtue,” Social Philosophy and Policy 15 1: 23374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cullen, J.B.Victor, B. and Bronson, J.W. 1993. “The Ethical Climate Questionnaire: An Assessment of Its Development and Validity,” Psychological Reports 73: 66774.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curzer, H.J. 2005. “How Good People Do Bad Things: Aristotle on the Misdeeds of the Virtuous,” Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 28: 23356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darley, J.M. and Baston, C.D. 1973. “From Jerusalem to Jericho: A Study of Situational and Dispositional Variables in Helping Behavior,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 27: 10008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darley, J.M. and Latané, B. 1968. “Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8: 37783.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Das, R. 2003. “Virtue Ethics and Right Action,” Australasian Journal of Philosophy 81: 32439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, D. 1980. “How Is Weakness of the Will Possible?,” In Davidson, D.Essays on Actions and Events. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2142.Google Scholar
Davis-Blake, A. and Pfeffer, J. 1986. “Just a Mirage: The Search for Dispositional Effects in Organizational Research,” Academy of Management Review 14: 385400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doris, J.M. 2002. Lack of Character: Personality and Moral Behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doris, J.M. 2005. “Book Symposium on Lack of Character,” unpublished paper, Department of Philosophy, University of California, Santa Cruz.Google Scholar
Doris, J.M. and Stich, S.P. 2005. “As a Matter of Fact: Empirical Perspectives on Ethics,” in The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Analytic Philosophy, ed. Jackson, F. and Smith, M.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Driver, J. 1996. “The Virtues and Human Nature,” in How Should One Live?, ed. Crisp, R.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Dudycha, G.J. 1936. “An Objective Study of Punctuality in Relation to Personality and Achievment,” Archives of Psychology, 204: 1309.Google Scholar
Elms, A.C. and Milgram, S. 1966. “Personality Characteristics Associated with Obedience and Defiance toward Authoritative Command,” Journal of Experimental Research in Personality 1: 28289.Google Scholar
Flanagan, O.J. 1991. Varieties of Moral Personality: Ethics and Psychological Realism. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Foot, P. 1981. Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Foot, P. 2001. Natural Goodness. Oxford: Clarendon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankfurt, H. 1971. “Freedom of the Will and the Concept of a Person,” Journal of Philosophy. 68: 520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Funder, D.C. 1991. “Global Traits: A Neo-Allportian Approach to Personality,” Psychological Science 2: 3139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Funder, D.C. 1999. Personality Judgment London: Academic.Google Scholar
Funder, D.C. and Ozer, D.J. 1983. “Behavior as a Function of the Situation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44: 10712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garcia, S.M.Weaver, K.D.Moskowitz, G.B. and Darley, J.M. 2002. “Crowded Minds: The Implicit Bystander Effect,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 83: 84353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geach, P.T. 1977. The Virtues. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gendler, T.S. 2008. “Alief and Belief,” Journal of Philosophy 105: 63463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gert, B. 2005. Morality: Its Nature and Justification, rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, J. 2002. “Who Stole the Money and When? Individual and Situational Determinants of Employee Theft,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 89: 9851003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwald, A.McGhee, D.E. and Schwartz, J.L.K. 1998. “Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74: 146480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffin, J. 1986. Well-Being: Its Meaning, Measurement, and Moral Importance. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Griffin, J. 2007. Doctoral Seminar on Human Rights. Department of Philosophy, Rutgers University.Google Scholar
Hass, K. 1966. “Obedience: Submission to Destructive Orders as Related to Hostility,” Psychological Reports 19: 3234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harman, G. 1999. “Moral Philosophy Meets Social Psychology: Virtue Ethics and the Fundamental Attribution Error,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 99: 31531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harman, G. 2000. “The Nonexistence of Character Traits,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 100: 22326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harman, G. 2001. “Virtue Ethics without Character Traits,” in Fact and Value, ed. Byrne, A.Stalnaker, R. and Wedgewood, R.Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 11727.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harman, G. 2003. “No Character or Personality,” Business Ethics Quarterly 13: 8794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harman, G. 2007. “Skepticism about Character Traits,” unpublished paper.Google Scholar
Hartman, E.M. 1998. “The Role of Character in Business Ethics,” Business Ethics Quarterly 8: 54759.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartshorne, H. and May, M.A. 1928. Studies in the Nature of Character, vol. 1: Studies in Deceit. New York: Mac-Millan.Google Scholar
House, R.J.Shane, S.A. and Herold, D.M. 1996. “Rumors of the Death of Dispositional Research are Vastly Exaggerated,” Academy of Management Review 21 (1): 20324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurka, T. 2001. Virtue, Vice, and Value. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hursthouse, R. 1999. On Virtue Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Irwin, T.H. 1988. “Disunity in the Aristotelian Virtues,” Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy supplementary volume: 61-78.Google Scholar
Isen, A.M. and Levin, P.F. 1972. “Effect of Feeling Good on Helping: Cookies and Kindness,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 21: 38488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jack, A. and Roepstorff, A. 2003. “Trusting the Subject,” Journal of Consciousness Studies. 1 (10): 910.Google Scholar
Johnson, R.N. 2003. “Virtue and Right,” Ethics. 113: 81034.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, D. 2003. “Maps of Bounded Rationality: Psychology for Behavioral Economics,” The American Economic Review. 93 (5): 144975.Google Scholar
Kamstra, M.J.Kramer, L.A. and Levi, M.D. 2003. “Winter Blues: A SAD Stock Market Cycle,” American Economic Review. 93 (1): 32443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamtekar, R. 2004. “Situationism and Virtue Ethics on the Content of Our Character,” Ethics. 114: 45891.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kilham, W. and Mann, L. 1974. “Level of Destructive Obedience as a Function of Transmitter and Executant Roles in the Milgram Obedience Paradigm,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29: 696702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kosslyn, S.M.Reisberg, D. and Behrmann, M. 2006. “Introspection and Mechanism in Mental Imagery,” in The Dalai Lama at MIT, ed. Harrington, Anne and Zajonc, Arthur. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 7990.Google Scholar
Kupperman, J. 2001. “The Indispensability of Character,” Philosophy 76: 29350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kupperman, J.J. 2009. “Virtue in Virtue Ethics,” The Journal of Ethics 13 (2–3): 24355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Latané, B. and Darley, J.M. 1970. The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn't He Help? New York: Appelton-Century Crofts.Google Scholar
Lehmann, H.C. and Witty, P.A. 1934. “Faculty Psychology and Personality Traits,” American Journal of Psychology 46 (3) (July): 486500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, M. and Crowther, S. 2008. “The Responsive Bystander: How Social Group Membership and Group Size Can Encourage as well as Inhibit Bystander Intervention,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (6): 142939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, N. 2004. “Good Character: Too Little, Too Late,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 19 (2): 10818.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, D. 1989. “Dispositional Theories of Value,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, supplementary volume 63: 11337.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, A. 1984. After Virtue Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Mackie, J.L. 1997, “Dispositions, Grounds and Causes,” Synthese 34: 36170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merritt, M. 2000. “Virtue Ethics and Situationist Personality Psychology,” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 3: 36583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milgram, S. 1963. “Behavioral Study of Obedience,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67: 37178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milgram, S. 1974. Obedience to Authority New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Mischel, W. 1968. Personality and Assessment New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Mischel, W. and Shoda, Y. 1995. “A Cognitive-Affective System Theory of Personality: Reconceptualizing Situations, Dispositions, Dynamics, and Invariance in Personality Structure,” Psychological Review 102: 24668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moberg, D.J. 1999. “The Big Five and Organizational Virtue,” Business Ethics Quarterly 9: 24572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murdoch, I. 1970. The Sovereignty of Good. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Newcomb, T.M. 1929. Consistency of Certain Extrovert-Introvert Behavior Patterns in 51 Problem Boys. New York: Columbia University, Teachers College, Bureau of Publications.Google Scholar
Nill, A. and Schibrowsky, J.A. 2005. “The Impact of Corporate Culture, the Reward System, and Perceived Moral Intensity on Marketing Students’ Ethical Decision Making,” Journal of Marketing Education 27: 6880.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nisbett, R.E. and Wilson, T.D. 1977. “Telling More than We Can Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes,” Psychological Review 84: 23159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paulhus, D.L. and John, O.P. 1998. “Egoistic and Moralistic Biases in Self-Perception: The Interplay of Self-Deceptive Styles with Basic Traits and Motives,” Journal of Personality 66: 102560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quine, W.V. 1960. Word and Object. Cambridge,Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Rees, G. and Frith, C. 2007. “Methodologies for Identifying the Neural Correlates of Consciousness,” in The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness, ed. Velmans, MaxSchneider, Susan. Malden,Mass.: Blackwell, 55366.Google Scholar
Ross, L. 1988. “Situationist Perspectives on the Obedience Experiments,” Contemporary Psychology 33: 10104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, L. 1990. “Recognizing the Role of Construal Processes,” in The Legacy of Solomon Asch: Essays in Cognition and Social Psychology, ed. Rock, I.Hillsdale,N.J.: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ross, L. and Nisbett, R.E. 1991. The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Ryle, G. 1949. The Concept of Mind. London: Hutchinson & Co.Google Scholar
Sabini, J. and Silver, M. 2005. “Lack of Character? Situationism Critiqued,” Ethics 115: 53562.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, B. 1987. “The People Make the Place,” Personnel Psychology 40: 43753.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwarz, N. 2002. “Feelings as Information: Moods Influence Judgments and Processing Strategies,” in Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, ed. Gilovich, T.Griffin, D. and Kahneman, D.New York: Cambridge University Press, 53447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slote, M.A. 1992. From Morality to Virtue. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Snyder, M. and Ickes, W. 1995. “Personality and Social Behavior,” in Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. Lindzey, G. and Aronson, E.London: Sage, 883947.Google Scholar
Sober, E. 1990. “Contrastive Empiricism,” in Scientific Theories, vol. 14, ed. Savage, W.Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 392412.Google Scholar
Solomon, R. 2003. “Victims of Circumstances? A Defense of Virtue Ethics in Business,” Business Ethics Quarterly 13 (1): 4362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solomon, R. 2005. “What's Character Got to Do With It?,” unpublished manuscript, Department of Philosophy, University of Texas.Google Scholar
Sosa, E. 2007. “Situations against Virtues: The Situationist Attack on Virtue Theory,” unpublished paper, Department of Philosophy, Rutgers University.Google Scholar
Tang, T.L.Sutarso, T.Davis Wu, G.M.Dolinski, D.Ibrahim, A.H. and Wagner, S.L. 2008. “To Help or Not to Help? The Good Samaritan Effect and the Love of Money on Helping Behavior,” Journal of Business Ethics 82: 86587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, S.E. and Brown, J.D. 1988. “Illusion and Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health,” Psychological Bulletin 103: 193210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tenbrunsel, A.E. 1998. “Misrepresentation and Expectations of Misrepresentation in an Ethical Dilemma: The Role of Incentives and Temptation,” Academy of Management Journal 41 (3): 33039.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomson, J.J. 1997. “The Right and the Good,” The Journal of Philosophy 94 (6): 27398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L.K.Butterfield, K.D. and McCabe, D.L. 1998. “The Ethical Context in Organizations: Influences on Employee Attitudes and Behaviors,” Business Ethics Quarterly 8 (3): 44776.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Upton, C. 2009. “The Structure of Character,” The Journal of Ethics 13: 17593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Victor, B. and Cullen, J.B. 1988. “The Organizational Bases of Ethical Work Climates,” Administrative Science Quarterly 33: 10125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Wright, G.H. 1963. The Varieties of Goodness. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Waston, J.B. 1913. “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,” Psychological Review 20: 15877.Google Scholar
Weaver, G.R.Treviño, L.K. and Agle, B.R. 2005. “‘Somebody I Look Up To’: Ethical Role Modeling in Organizations,” Organizational Dynamics 34: 31330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webber, J. 2006. “Character, Consistency, and Classification,” Mind 115 (459): 65158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, B.A.O. 1985. Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, T.D. 2002. Strangers to ourselves. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, S. 2007. “Moral Psychology and the Unity of the Virtues,” Ratio 20 (2): 14567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, P.M.George, J.M.Farnsworth, S.R. and McMahan, G.C. 1993. “Productivity and Extra-Role Behavior: The Effects of Goals and Incentives on Spontaneous Helping,” Journal of Applied Psychology 78 (3): 37481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimbardo, P. 2004. “A Situationist Perspective on the Psychology of Evil: Understanding How Good People Are Transformed into Perpetrators,” in The Social Psychology of Good and Evil: Understanding Our Capacity for Kindness and Cruelty, ed. Miller, A.New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Zimmerman, A. 2007. “The Nature of Belief,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 14 (11): 6182.Google Scholar
Zyl, L. 2009. “Agent-Based Virtue Ethics and the Problem of Action Guidance,” Journal of Moral Philosophy 6: 5069.Google Scholar