Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T04:33:48.011Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Ethical Crisis in Microfinance: Issues, Findings, and Implications

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Marek Hudon
Affiliation:
Université Libre de Bruxelles; Centre for European Research in Microfinance
Joakim Sandberg
Affiliation:
University of Gothenburg; Centre for European Research in Microfinance

Abstract:

Microfinance is often assumed to be an ethically progressive industry, but in recent years it has been the target of much ethical criticism. Microfinance institutions have been accused of using exploitative lending techniques and charging usurious interest rates; and critics even question the ability of microfinance to alleviate poverty. This article reviews recent research on the microfinance sector that addresses these ethical issues. We show how this research is relevant to a number of theoretical issues, such as how to define poverty, how to understand exploitation, and how to balance financial and social goals in commercial organizations. We conclude by identifying a critical agenda for future research.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abraham, R., Kast, F., & Pomeranz, D. 2011. Insurance through savings accounts: Evidence from a randomized field experiment among low-income micro-entrepreneurs in Chile. Harvard University, Working Paper.Google Scholar
Agier, I., & Szafarz, A. 2013. Microfinance and gender: Is there a glass ceiling on loan size? World Development, 42: 65181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.06.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahmed, H. 2010. Fund transfer allegation against Prof. Yunus needs inquiry: Financial Express, 6 December.Google Scholar
Alsop, R. (Ed.). 2005. Power, Rights, and Poverty: Concepts and Connections. Washington, DC: The World Bank.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alter, K. 2007. Social Enterprise Typology. http://www.virtueventures.com/resources/setypology.Google Scholar
Angelucci, M., Karlan, D., & Zinman, J. 2013. Win some lose some? Evidence from a randomized microcredit program placement experiment by Compartamos Banco. Working Paper, Economic Growth Center, Yale University.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armendáriz, B., & Labie, M. 2011. The Handbook of Microfinance. Singapore: World Scientific.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armendáriz, B., & Morduch, J. 2010. The Economics of Microfinance, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Armendáriz, B., & Szafarz, A. 2011. On mission drift in microfinance institutions. In Armendáriz, B. and Labie, M. (Eds.), The handbook of microfinance. Singapore: World Scientific. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/9789814295666_0016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arneson, R. 2007. Broadly utilitarian theories of exploitation and multi-national clinical research. In Emanuel, E. and Hawkins, J. (Eds.), Exploitation and developing countries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Arnold, D.G. 2010. Transnational corporations and the duty to respect basic human rights. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(3): 371–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq201020327CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, D.G. 2013. Global justice and international business. Business Ethics Quarterly, 23(1): 125–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq20132315CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, D.G., & Valentin, A. 2013. Corporate social responsibility at the base of the pyramid. Journal of Business Research, 66: 1904–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.02.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashraf, N., Karlan, D., & Yin, W. 2010. Female empowerment: Further evidence from a commitment savings product in the Philippines. World Development, 38(3): 333–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Glennerster, R., & Kinnan, C. 2010. The miracle of microfinance: Evidence from a randomized evaluation. MIT Working Paper, Boston.Google Scholar
Bateman, M. 2010. Why doesn’t microfinance work? London: Zed Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Battilana, J., & Dorado, S. 2010. Building sustainable hybrid organizations: The case of commercial microfinance organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 53(6): 1419–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMJ.2010.57318391CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biosca, O., Lenton, P., & Mosley, P. 2013. Where is the “plus” in “creditplus”? The case of Chiapas, Mexico Manuscript.Google Scholar
Bogan, V. 2012. Capital structure and sustainability: An empirical study of microfinance institutions. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 94(4): 1045–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00223CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourguignon, F., & Sundberg, M. 2007. Aid effectiveness: Opening the black box. American Economic Review, 97(2): 316–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.97.2.316CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brune, L., Gine, X., Goldberg, J., and Yang, D. 2011. Commitments to save: A field experiment in rural Malawi. Policy Research Working Paper Series 5748, The World Bank.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchanan, A. 1988. Ethics, efficiency, and the market. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Campbell, T. 2012. Corporate social responsibility: Beyond the business case to human rights. In Cragg, W. (Ed.), Business and human rights. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 4773. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781781005774.00008Google Scholar
Carroll, A.B., & Shabana, K.M. 2010. The business case for corporate social responsibility. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12(1): 85105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00275.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caudill, S.B., Gropper, D., & Hartarska, V. 2009. Which microfinance institutions are becoming more cost effective with time? Evidence from a mixture model. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 41(4): 5167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4616.2009.00226.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, D., Morduch, J., Rutherford, S., & Ruthven, O. 2009. Portfolios of the poor: How the world’s poor live on $2 a day, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Copestake, J. 2007. Mainstreaming microfinance: Social performance management or mission drift?. World Development, 35(10): 1721–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016Zj.worlddev.2007.06.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Counts, A. 2008. Reimagining microfinance. Stanford Social Innovation Review (Summer): 4653.Google Scholar
Cragg, W. 2012. Ethics, enlightened self interest and the corporate responsibility to respect human rights: A critical look at the justificatory foundations of the proposed UN human rights framework. Business Ethics Quarterly, 22(1): 936. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq20122213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cull, R., Demirguc-Kunt, A. & Morduch, J. 2009. Microfinance meets the market. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 23(1): 167–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.23.L167CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dees, J.G. 1998. Enterprising Nonprofits. Harvard Business Review 76(1): 5467.Google ScholarPubMed
de Mel, S., McKenzie, D., & Woodruff, C. 2008. Returns to capital in microenterprises: Evidence from a field experiment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 123(4): 1329–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2008.123A1329CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demirguc-Kunt, A., & Klapper, L. 2012. Measuring financial inclusion: The global findex World Bank Policy Research Working Papers, 6025.Google Scholar
D’espallier, B., Hudon, M., & Szafarz, A. 2013. Unsubsidized microfinance institutions, Economics Letters, 12(2): 174–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2013.04.021CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doyal, L., & Gough, I. 2007. A theory of human need. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar
Dupas, P., & Robinson, J. 2013. Savings constraints and microenterprise development: Evidence from a field experiment in Kenya. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 5(1): 163–92.Google Scholar
Duvendack, M., Palmer-Jones, R., Copestake, J.G., Hooper, L., Loke, Y., & Rao, N. 2011. What is the evidence of the impact of microfinance on the well-being of poor people?. London: EPPI-Centre, University of London.Google Scholar
Ehrbeck, T., Pickens, M., & Tarazi, M. 2012. Financially inclusive ecosystems: The roles of government today. Washington, DC: CGAP.Google Scholar
Ellerman, D. 2007. Microfinance: Some conceptual and methodological problems. In Dichter, T. & Harper, M. (Eds.), What’s wrong with microfinance?. Rugby: Practical Action Publishing.Google Scholar
Emerson, J. 2003. The blended value proposition: Integrating social and financial returns. California Management Review, 45(4): 3551. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/41166187CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fafchamps, M., McKenzie, D., Quinn, S., & Woodruff, C. 2011. When is capital enough to get female microenterprises growing? Evidence from a randomized experiment in Ghana. NBER Working Papers 17207, National Bureau of Economic Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernando, N.A. 2006. Understanding and dealing with high interest rates on microcredit. Manila: Asian Development Bank.Google Scholar
Gähwiler, B., & Negré, A. 2011. Trends in cross-border funding. Washington, DC: CGAP.Google Scholar
Garikipati, S. 2008. The impact of lending to women on household vulnerability and women’s empowerment: Evidence from India. World Development, 36(12): 2620–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.11.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garikipati, S. 2013. Microcredit and women’s empowerment: Have we been looking at the wrong indicators?. Oxford Development Studies, 41: 5376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2012.744387CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghatak, M., & Guinnane, T.W. 1999. The economics of lending with joint liability: Theory and practice. Journal of Development Economics, 60: 195228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(99)00041-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosh, S., & Van Tassel, E. 2008. A model of microfinance and mission drift. Department of Economics, Florida Atlantic University.Google Scholar
Goodin, R.E. 1987. Exploiting a situation and exploiting a person. In Reeve, A. (Ed.), Modern theories of exploitation. London: Sage, 166200.Google Scholar
Guérin, I., Kumar, S., & Agier, I. 2013. Women’s empowerment: Power to act or power over other women? Lessons from Indian microfinance. Oxford Development Studies, 41: 7695. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2013.781147CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutiérrez-Nieto, B., Serrano-Cinca, C., & Mar Molinero, C. 2007. Microfinance institutions and efficiency. Omega: International Journal of Management Science, 2: 131–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harper, M. 2005. Farm credit and microfinance: Is there a critical mismatch? Small Enterprise Development, 16(3): 5867. http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0957-1329.2005.034CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harper, M. 2007. What’s wrong with groups? In Dichter, T. & Harper, M. (Ed.), What’s wrong with microfinance?. Rugby: Practical Action Publishing.Google Scholar
Hartarska, V., Shen, X., & Mersland, R. 2013. Scale economies and elasticities of substitution in microfinance institutions. Journal of Banking and Finance, 37(1): 118–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2012.08.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heineman, T. 2010. The micro debt, documentary produced for Norwegian television.Google Scholar
Hermes, N., Lensink, R., & Meesters, A. 2011. Outreach and efficiency of microfinance institutions. World Development, 39(6): 938–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.10.018CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoepner, A., Liu, H. & Wilson, J. 2011. Do microfinance institutions (MFIs) pay for social responsibility? Evidence from social ratings of MFIs. University of St. Andrews.Google Scholar
Holvoet, N. 2004. The impact of microfinance on decision-making agency: Evidence from South India. Development and Change, 35(5): 937–62.Google Scholar
Hudon, M. 2009. Should access to credit be a right? Journal of Business Ethics, 84: 1728. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9670-yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudon, M. 2011. Ethics in microfinance. In Armendáriz, B. & Labie, M. (Ed.), The handbook of microfinance. Singapore: World Scientific. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/9789814295666_0006Google Scholar
Hudon, M., and Ashta, A. 2013. Fairness and microcredit interest rates: From Rawlsian principles of justice to the distribution of the bargaining range. Business Ethics: A European Review, 22(3): 277–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulme, D., & Arun, T. 2011. What’s wrong and right with microfinance: Missing an angle on responsible finance? Working paper, Brooks World Poverty Institute.Google Scholar
Hulme, D., & Mosley, P. 1996. Finance against poverty, vol 1. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Jackelen, H.R., & Rhyne, E. 1991. Towards a more market-oriented approach to credit and savings for the poor. Small Enterprise Development, 2(4): 420. http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0957-1329.1991.037CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karlan, D., & Zinman, J. 2010. Expanding credit access: Using randomized supply decisions to estimate the impacts. Review of Financial Studies, 23(1): 433–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/rfs/hhp092CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karnani, A. 2011. Undermining the chances of sustainable development in India with microfinance. In Bateman, M. (Ed.), Confronting microfinance: Undermining sustainable development. Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press.Google Scholar
Khandker, S. 1998. Fighting poverty with microcredits. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lenoir, R. 1989. Les exclus: Un francais sur dix. Paris: Editions du Seuil.Google Scholar
Lewis, J.C. 2008. Microloan sharks. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 6(3): 5459.Google Scholar
Mair, J., & Marti, I. 2006. Social entrepreneurship research: A source of explanation, prediction, and delight. Journal of World Business, 41(1): 3644. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2005.09.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Margolis, J.D., Elfenbein, H.A. , & Walsh, J.P. 2007. Does it pay to be good? Working paper, Harvard Business School.Google Scholar
Mayoux, L. 2001. Tackling the down side: Social capital, women’s empowerment and micro-finance in Cameroon. Development and Change, 32(3): 435–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00212CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKenzie, D., & Woodruff, C. 2008. Experimental evidence on returns to capital and access to finance in Mexico? World Bank Economic Review, 22(3): 457–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhn017CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McWilliams, A., Siegel, D.S., & Wight, P.M. 2006. Corporate social responsibility: Strategic implications Journal of Management Studies, 43(1): 118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2006.00580.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meier, S., & Sprenger, C. 2010. Present-biased preferences and credit card borrowing American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(1): 193210.Google Scholar
Mersland, R., & Strøm, T. 2010. Microfinance mission drift? World Development, 38(1): 2836. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.05.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, R.L. 2007. Measuring the impact of microfinance. In Dichter, T. & Harper, M. (Eds.), What’s wrong with microfinance? Rugby: Practical Action Publishing.Google Scholar
Mirvis, P., & Googins, B. 2006. Stages of corporate citizenship. California Management Review, 48(2): 104–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/41166340CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, R. 1996. Disciplining or protecting the poor? Avoiding the social costs of peer pressure in micro-credit schemes. Journal of International Development, 8(2): 289305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1328(199603)8:2<289::AID-JID368>3.0.CO;2-23.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morduch, J. 1999a. The microfinance promise. Journal of Economic Literature, 37: 15691614. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jel.37.4.1569CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morduch, J. 1999b. The role of subsidies in microfinance: Evidence from the Grameen Bank. Journal of Development Economics, 60(1): 229–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(99)00042-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morduch, J. 2011. Not so fast: The realities of impact investing. Americas Quarterly, 5(4): 7883.Google Scholar
Morduch, J. 2013. How microfinance really worksCERMi Seminar, 18 March 2013.Google Scholar
Morvant-Roux, S., Guérin, I., Roesch, M., & Moisseron, J.-Y.. Forthcoming. Explaining participation and repayment in microcredit schemes in rural Morocco: The role of social norms and actors. World Development.Google Scholar
Munzer, S. 1990. A theory of property. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511609138CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nickel, J. 2005. Poverty and rights. The Philosophical Quarterly, 55(200): 385402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0031-8094.2005.00406.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nussbaum, M. 2000. Women and human development: The capabilities approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511841286CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orlitzky, M., Siegel, D.S., Waldman, D.A. 2011. Strategic corporate social responsibility and environmental sustainability. Business & Society, 50(1): 627. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0007650310394323CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pattenden, J. 2010. A neoliberalisation of civil society? Self-help groups and the labouring class poor. Journal of Peasant Studies, 37(3): 485509. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2010.494372CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pitt, M., & Khandker, S.R. 1996. Household and intrahousehold impact of the Grameen Bank and similar targeted credit programs in Bangladesh. World Bank, Discussion Paper no. 320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pogge, T. 2002. World poverty and human rights: Cosmopolitan responsibilities and reforms. Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Pohl, M., & Tolhurst, N. (Eds.), 2010. Responsible business: How to manage a CSR strategy successfully. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Porter, M., & Kramer, M. 2006. Strategy and society: The link between competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility. Harvard Business Review, 84: 7892.Google Scholar
Prina, S. 2013. Banking the poor via savings accounts: Evidence from a field experiment. Case Western University, Working Paper.Google Scholar
Prior, F., & Argandoña, A. 2009. Credit accessibility and corporate social responsibility in financial institutions: The case of microfinance. Business Ethics: A European Review, 18(4): 349–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Priyadarshee, A., & Ghalib, A.K. 2012. Over-indebtedness, coercion, and default: Causes of the Andhra Pradesh microfinance crisis and regulatory implications. Enterprise Development and Microfinance, 23(3): 185200. http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.2012.020CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rankin, K.N. 2002. Social capital, microfinance and the politics of development. Feminist Economics, 8(1): 124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13545700210125167CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ravi, S., & Rai, A. 2011. Do spouses make claims? Health seeking and microfinance in India. World Development, 39(6): 913–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.10.019Google Scholar
Reed, L.R. 2013. Vulnerability: The state of the microcredit summit campaign report. Washington, DC: Microcredit Summit Campaign.Google Scholar
Reeve, A. 1987. Modern theories of exploitation. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Results. 2006. A conversation with Mohammad Yunus. Washington, D.C.: RESULTS.Google Scholar
Rhyne, E., & Guimon, A. 2007. The Banco Compartamos initial public offering, ACCION InSight, no. 23, June 2007.Google Scholar
Roodman, D. 2012. Due diligence: An impertinent inquiry into microfinance. Washington, D.C.: Center for Global Development.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, R. 2007. CGAP reflections on the Compartamos initial public offering: A case study on microfinance interest rates and profits. CGAP Focus Note 42. Washington, D.C.: CGAP.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, R., Gonzalez, A., & Narain, S. 2009. The new moneylenders: Are the poor being exploited by high microcredit interest rates? CGAP Occasional Paper 15. Washington, DC: CGAP.Google Scholar
Safavian, M., Graham, D., & Gonzalez-Vega, C. 2001. Corruption and microenterprises in Russia. World Development, 29(7): 1215–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00036-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandberg, J. 2012. Mega-interest on microcredit: Are lenders exploiting the poor? Journal of Applied Philosophy, 29(3): 169–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5930.2012.00560.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schicks, J. 2013. Microfinance over-indebtedness: Understanding its drivers and challenging the common myths. Oxford Development Studies, 41: 95117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2013.778237CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, R. 2010. Microfinance, commercialization and ethics. Poverty & Public Policy, 2(1): 16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sen, A. 1999. Development as freedom. New York: Anchor Books.Google Scholar
Servet, J.M. 2011. Corporate responsibility versus social performance and financial inclusion. In Armendáriz, B. & Labie, M. (Eds.), The handbook of microfinance. Singapore: World Scientific, 301–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/9789814295666_0014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shue, H. 1996. Basic rights: Subsistence, affluence, and U.S. foreign policy, 2nd edition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Shylendra, H.S. 2006. Microfinance institutions in Andhra Pradesh: Crisis and diagnosis. Economic and Political Weekly (20 May): 1959–63.Google Scholar
Sievers, M., & Vandenberg, P. 2007. Synergies through linkages: Who benefits from linking micro-finance and business development services? World Development, 35(8): 1341–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.04.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, H. 1995. Reconceptualizing social disadvantge: Three paradigms of social exclusion. In Rodgers, G., Gore, C., & Figueredo, J. (Eds.), Social exclusion: Rhetoric, reality, responses. Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies.Google Scholar
Snyder, J. 2010. Exploitation and sweatshop labor: Perspectives and Issues. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(2): 187213. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq201020215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonne, L. 2012. Innovative initiatives supporting inclusive innovation in India. Technological Forecasting & Social Change, 79(4): 638–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2011.06.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sriram, M. 2005. Microfinance and the state: Exploring areas and structures of collaboration. Economic and Political Weekly, 40(7): 16991703.Google Scholar
Steiner, H. 1984. A liberal theory of exploitation. Ethics, 94: 225–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/292529CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, H. 2002. The imposition of a global development architecture: The example of microcredit. Review of International Studies, 28(3): 537–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0260210502005375CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, H. 2004. The “new economy” and social risk: Banking on the poor? Review of International Political Economy, 11(2): 356–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09692290420001672859CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wertheimer, A. 1996. Exploitation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Windsor, D. 2006. Corporate social responsibility: Three key approaches. Journal of Management Studies, 43: 93114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2006.00584.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, S. 2012. The case for leverage-based corporate human rights responsibility. Business Ethics Quarterly, 22(1): 6398. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq20122215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yunus, M. 1998. Banker to the poor. Dhaka: The University Press Limited.Google Scholar
Yunus, M. 2002. A national strategy for economic growth and poverty reduction. Dhaka: Sustainable Development Networking Programme.Google Scholar
Yunus, M. 2007. Creating a world without poverty: Social business and the future of capitalism. New York: PublicAffairs.Google Scholar
Yunus, M. 2010. Building social business: Capitalism that can serve humanity’s most pressing needs. New York: PublicAffairs.Google Scholar
Yunus, M. 2011. Sacrificing microcredit for megaprofits. The New York Times, January 14.Google Scholar
Yunus, M., Moingeon, B., & Lehmann-Ortega, L. 2010. Building social business models: Lessons from the Grameen experience. Long Range Planning, 43 (2–3): 308–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2009.12.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahra, S., Ireland, D., Guiterrez, I., & Hitt, M. 2000. Privatization and entrepreneurial transformation: A review and research agenda. Academy of Management Review, 25: 509–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zwolinski, M. 2007. Sweatshops, choice, and exploitation. Business Ethics Quarterly, 17(4): 689727. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq20071745CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zwolinski, M. 2008. The ethics of price gouging. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18(3): 347–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq200818327CrossRefGoogle Scholar