Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T19:38:10.785Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Business Ethics and the Brain: Rommel Salvador and Robert G. Folger

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Abstract:

Neuroethics, the study of the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying ethical decision-making, is a growing field of study. In this review, we identify and discuss four themes emerging from neuroethics research. First, ethical decision-making appears to be distinct from other types of decision-making processes. Second, ethical decision-making entails more than just conscious reasoning. Third, emotion plays a critical role in ethical decision-making, at least under certain circumstances. Lastly, normative approaches to morality have distinct, underlying neural mechanisms. On the basis of these themes, we draw implications for research in business ethics and the practice of ethics training.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aamodt, S.., and Wang, S.. 2008. Welcome to your brain: Why you lose your car keys but never forget how to drive and other puzzles of everyday life. New York: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Acker, F. 2008. New findings on unconscious versus conscious thought in decision making: Additional empirical data and meta-analysis. Judgment and Decision Making, 3: 292303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adolphs, R. 2003. Cognitive neuroscience of human social behavior. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4: 165–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agle, B. R., Donaldson, T., Freeman, R. E., Jensen, M. C., Mitchell, R. K., & Wood, D. J. 2008. Dialogue: Toward superior stakeholder theory. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18: 153–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alsop, R. J. 2006. Business ethics education in business schools: A commentary. Journal of Management Education, 30: 1114.Google Scholar
Alzola, M. 2008. Character and environment: The status of virtues in organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 78: 343–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, S. W., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. 1999. Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage in human prefrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 2: 1032–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, S. W., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. 2000. Long-term sequelae of prefrontal cortex damage acquired in early childhood. Developmental Neuropsychology, 18: 281–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ansari, D., & Coch, D. 2006. Bridges over troubled waters: Education and cognitive neuroscience. Trends in Cognitive Science, 10: 146–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arjoon, S. 2008. Reconciling situational social psychology with virtue ethics. International Journal of Management Reviews, 10: 221–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. 1999. The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54: 462–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bargh, J. A., & Ferguson, M. J. 2000. Beyond behaviorism: On the automaticity of higher mental processes. Psychological Bulletin, 126: 925–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bargh, J. A., & Williams, E. L. 2006. The automaticity of social life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15: 14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. R. 2000. Emotion, decision making, and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 10: 295307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bechara, A., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. 2000. Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. Brain, 123: 21892202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berthoz, S., Grezes, J., Armony, J. L., Passingham, R. E., & Dolan, R. J. 2006. Affective response to one's own moral violations. NeuroImage, 31: 945–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. 2007a. The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy. Trends in Cognitive Science, 11: 387–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. 2007b. Dysfunctions of medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex in psychopathy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1121: 461–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J., Marsh, A. A., Finger, E., Blair, K. S. & Luo, J. 2006. Neurocognitive systems involved in morality. Philosophical Explorations, 9: 1327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borg, J. S., Hynes, C., Horn, J. v., Grafton, S., & Sinnott-Armstrong, W. 2006. Consequences, action, and intention as factors in moral judgments: An fMRI investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18: 803–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brickner, R.M. 1932. An interpretation of frontal lobe function based upon the study of a case of partial bilateral frontal lobectomy: Localization of function in the cerebral cortex. Proceedings of the Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease (Baltimore), 13: 259351.Google Scholar
Brower, M. C., & Price, B. H. 2001. Neuropsychiatry of frontal lobe dysfunction in violent and criminal behavior: A critical review. Journal of Neurological and Neurosurgical Psychiatry, 71: 720–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burton, B. K., Dunn, C. P., & Goldsby, M. 2006. Moral pluralism in business ethics education: It's about time. Journal of Management Education, 30: 90105.Google Scholar
Camerer, C., Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D. 2005. Neuroeconomics: How neuroscience can inform economics. Journal of Economic Literature, 43: 964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casebeer, W. D. 2003. Moral cognition and its neural constituents. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4: 841–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casebeer, W. D., & Churchland, P. S. 2003. The neural mechanisms of moral cognition: A multiple-aspect approach to moral judgment and decision-making. Biology and Philosophy, 18: 169–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaiken, S., & Trope, Y. (Eds.). 1999. Dual-process theories in social psychology. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. 1986. Knowledge of language: Its nature, origin, and use. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Chorvat, T., & McCabe, K. 2004. The brain and the law. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 359: 1727–36.Google ScholarPubMed
Ciaramelli, E., Muccioli, M., Ladavas, E., & de Pellegrino, G. 2007. Selective deficit in personal moral judgment following damage to ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Scan, 2: 8492.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. D. 2005. The vulcanization of the human brain: A neural perspective on interactions between cognition and emotion. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19: 324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, W. A., & Zelazo, P. D. 2007. Attitudes and evaluations: A social cognitive neuroscience perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11: 97104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cushman, F., & Young, L.In press. The philosophy of morality and the psychology of dilemmas. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice.Google Scholar
Cushman, F., Young, L., & Hauser, M. 2006. The role of conscious reasoning and intuition in moral judgment. Psychological Science, 17: 1082–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damasio, A. R. 1994. Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York: Avon Books.Google Scholar
Damasio, A. R. 1999. The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. New York: Harcourt Brace & Company.Google Scholar
Doris, J. M. 2002. Lack of character: Personality and moral behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, B. D., Dalgleish, T., & Lawrence, A. D. 2006. The somatic marker hypothesis: A critical evaluation. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30: 239–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dupoux, E., & Jacob, P. 2007. Universal moral grammar: A critical appraisal. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11: 373–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dupoux, E., & Jacob, P. 2008. Response to Dwyer and Hauser: Sounding the retreat? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12: 23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dwyer, S., & Hauser, M. D. 2008. Dupoux and Jacob's Instincts: Throwing out the baby, the bathwater, and the bathtub. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12: 12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ermer, E., Guerin, S. A., Cosmides, L., Tooby, J., & Miller, M. B. 2006. Theory of mind broad and narrow: Reasoning about social exchange engages ToM areas, precautionary reasoning does not. Social Neuroscience, 1: 196219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eslinger, P. J., & Damasio, A. R. 1985. Severe disturbance of higher cognition after bilateral frontal lobe ablation: Patient EVR. Neurology, 35: 1731–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, J.S. 2008. Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59: 255–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. 1986. On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50: 229–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fellows, L. K. 2004. The cognitive neuroscience of human decision making: A review and conceptual framework. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3: 159–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiddick, L., Spampinato, M. V., & Grafman, J. 2005. Social contracts and precautions activate different neurological systems: An fMRI investigation of deontic reasoning. NeuroImage, 28: 778–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fine, C. 2006. Is the emotional dog wagging its rational tail, or chasing it? Reason in moral judgment. Philosophical Explorations, 9: 8398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Folger, R. G., & Salvador, R.In press. Is management theory too “selfish”? Journal of Management.Google Scholar
Foot, P. 1967. The problem of abortion and the doctrine of double effect. Oxford Review, 5: 515.Google Scholar
Gazzaniga, M. S. 2005. The ethical brain: The science of our moral dilemmas. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.Google Scholar
Greene, J. D. 2003. From neural “is” to moral “ought”: What are the moral implications of neuroscientific moral psychology? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4: 847–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, J. D. 2005. Cognitive neuroscience and the structure of the moral mind. In Laurence, S., Carruthers, P., & Stich, S. (Eds.), The Innate Mind: Structure and Contents. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Greene, J. D. 2007. Why are VMPFC patients more utilitarian? A dual-process theory of moral judgment explains. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11: 322–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greene, J. D., & Cohen, J. 2004. For the law, neuroscience changes nothing and everything. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 359: 1775–85.Google ScholarPubMed
Greene, J. D., & Haidt, J. 2002. How (and where) does moral judgment work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6: 517–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greene, J. D., Morelli, S. A., Lowenberg, K., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. 2008. Cognitive load selectively interferes with utilitarian moral judgment. Cognition, 107: 1144–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greene, J. D., Nystrom, L. E., Engell, A. D., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. 2004. The neural basis of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment. Neuron, 44: 389400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. 2001. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science, 293: 2105–08.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. 1995. Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102: 427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. 2000. Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79: 1022–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwarz, J. L. K. 1998. Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 1464–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haidt, J. 2001. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 108: 814–34.Google ScholarPubMed
Haidt, J. 2008. Morality. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3: 6572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haidt, J., & Bjorklund, F. 2008. Social intuitionists answer six questions about moral psychology. In Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (Ed.), Moral Psychology, Volume 2: The Cognitive Science of Morality: Intuition and Diversity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Harenski, C. L., & Hamann, S. 2006. Neural correlates of regulating negative emotions related to moral violations. Neurolmage, 30: 313–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harlow, J. M. 1848. Passage of an iron rod through the head. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39: 389–93.Google Scholar
Harman, G. 1999. Moral philosophy meets social psychology: Virtue ethics and the Fundamental Attribution Error. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 99: 315–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartman, E. M. 2008. Reconciliation in business ethics: Some advice from Aristotle. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18: 253–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauser, M. D. 2006a. The liver and the moral organ. Scan, 1: 214–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Hauser, M. D. 2006b. Moral minds: The nature of right and wrong. New York: Harper Perrenial.Google Scholar
Hauser, M., Cushman, F., Young, L., Jin, R. K.-X., & Mikhail, J. 2007. A dissociation between moral judgments and justifications. Mind & Language, 22: 121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauser, M., Young, L., & Cushman, F. 2007. Reviving Rawls’ Linguistic Analogy. In Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (Ed.), The Cognitive Science of Morality: Intuition and Diversity. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O., & Penfield, W. 1940. Human behavior after extensive bilateral removal from the frontal lobes. Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry, 44: 421–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heerkeren, H. R., Wartenburger, I., Schmidt, H., Schwintowski, H.-P., & Villringer, A. 2003. An fMRI study of simple ethical decision-making. Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropsychology, 14: 1215–19.Google Scholar
Howard, P. J. 2006. The owner's manual for the brain: Everyday applications from mind-brain research (3rd edition). Austin: Bard Press.Google Scholar
Hume, D. 1739/1978. A Treatise of Human Nature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Illes, J. (Ed.) 2006. Neuroethics: Defining the issues in theory, practice, and policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Illes, J., & Racine, E. 2005. Imaging or imagining? A neuroethics challenge informed by genetics. American Journal of Bioethics, 5(2): 518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Damasio, A. 2007. We feel, therefore we learn: The relevance of affective and social neuroscience to education. Mind, Brain, and Education, 1: 310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, T. M., & Wicks, A. C. 1999. Convergent stakeholder theory. Academy of Management Review, 24: 206–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahane, G., & Shackel, N. 2008. Do abnormal responses show utilitarian bias? Nature, 452: E5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahneman, D. 2003. Maps of bounded rationality: Psychology for behavioral economics. American Economic Review, 93: 1449–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamtekar, R. 2004. Situationism and virtue ethics on the content of our character. Ethics, 114: 458–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kedia, G., Berthoz, S., Wessa, M., Hilton, D., & Martinot, J. 2008. An agent harms a victim: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study on specific moral emotions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20: 1788–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, J. A., Blair, R. J., Mitchell, D. G. V., Dolan, R. J., & Burgess, N. 2006. Doing the right thing: A common neural circuit for appropriate violent or compassionate behavior. NeuroImage, 30: 1069–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koenigs, M., Young, L., Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Cushman, F., Hauser, M., & Damasio, A. 2007. Damage to the prefrontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgments. Nature, 446: 908–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kringelbach, M. L., & Rolls, E. T. 2004. The functional neuroanatomy of the human orbitofrontal cortex: Evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychology. Progress in Neurobiology, 72: 341–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamm, C., Batson, C. D., & Decety, J. 2007. The neural substrate of human empathy: Effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19: 4258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LeDoux, J. E. 2000. Emotion circuits in the brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23: 155–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, M. P. 2008. A review of the theories of corporate social responsibility: Its evolutionary path and the road ahead. International Journal of Management Reviews, 10: 5373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, N., & Chamberlain, L. 2007. Neuroimaging and psychophysiological measurement in organizational research: An agenda for research in organizational cognitive neuroscience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1118: 1842.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, N. 2007. Neuroethics. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, N. 2008. Introducing neuroethics. Neuroethics, 1: 18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, M. D. 2007. Social cognitive neuroscience: A review of core processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 58: 259–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, M. D., Gaunt, R., Gilbert, D. T., & Trope, Y. 2002. Reflection and reflexion: A social cognitive neuroscience approach to attributional inference. In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, vol. 34, pp. 199249. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Liu, X., Powell, D. K., Wang, H., Gold, B. T., Corbly, C. R., & Joseph, J. E. 2007. Functional dissociation in frontal and striatal areas for processing of positive and negative reward information. Journal of Neuroscience, 27: 4587–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loescher, K. J. 2006. Before you train, reframe: Elements of effective ethics training programs. Employment Relations Today, 33(3): 111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lombera, S., & Illes, J.In press. The international dimensions of neuroethics. Developing World Bioethics.Google Scholar
Luo, Q., Nakic, M., Wheatley, T., Richell, R., Martin, A., & Blair, R. J. R. 2006. The neural basis of implicit moral attitude: An IAT study using event-related fMRI. NeuroImage, 30: 1449–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margolis, J. D., & Walsh, J. P. 2003. Misery loves companies: Rethinking social initiatives by business. Administrative Sciences Quarterly, 48: 268305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matten, D., & Moon, J. 2008. “Implicit” and “explicit” CSR: A conceptual framework for a comparative understanding of corporate social responsibility. Academy of Management Review, 33: 404–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, R. 2004. The feeling of rationality: The meaning of neuroscientific advances for political science. Perspectives on Politics, 2: 691706.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McWilliams, A., & Siegel, D. 2001. Corporate social responsibility: A theory of the firm perspective. Academy of Management Review, 26: 117–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meisel, S. I., & Fearon, D. S. 2006. “Choose the future wisely”: Supporting better ethics through critical thinking. Journal of Management Education, 30: 149–76.Google Scholar
Mendez, M. F. 2006. What frontotemporal dementia reveals about the neurobiological basis of morality. Medical Hypotheses, 67: 411–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendez, M. F., Anderson, E., & Shapira, J. S. 2005. An investigation of moral judgment in frontotemporal dementia. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 18: 193–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mikhail, J. 2007. Universal moral grammar: Theory, evidence and the future. Trends in Cognitive Science, 11: 143–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milner, B., Squire, L. R., & Kandel, E. R. 1998. Cognitive neuroscience and the study of memory. Neuron, 20: 445–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 2007. Practical wisdom and business ethics: Presidential address to the Society for Business Ethics, Atlanta, August 2006. Business Ethics Quarterly, 17: 535–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moll, J., Eslinger, P. J., & de Oliveira-Souza, R. 2001. Frontopolar and anterior temporal cortex activation in a moral judgment task. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria, 59: 657–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moll, J., & de Oliveira-Souza, R. 2007a. Moral judgments, emotions, and the utilitarian brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11: 319–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moll, J., & de Oliveira-Souza, R. 2007b. Response to Greene: Moral sentiments and reason: Friends or foes? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11: 323–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moll, J., & de Oliveira-Souza, R. 2008. When morality is hard to like. Scientific American Mind, 19: 3035.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moll, J., de Oliveira-Souza, R., Bramati, I. E., & Grafman, J. 2002. Functional networks in emotional moral and nonmoral social judgments. NeuroImage, 16: 696703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moll, J., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Eslinger, P. J. 2003. Morals and the human brain: A working model. NeuroReport, 14: 299305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moll, J., de Oliveira-Souza, R., Eslinger, P. J., Bramati, I. E., Mourao-Miranda, J., Andreiuolo, P. A., & Pessoa, L. 2002. The neural correlates of moral sensitivity: A functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of basic and moral emotions. Journal of Neuroscience, 22: 2730–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moll, J., de Oliveira-Souza, R., Garrido, G. J., Bramati, I. E., Caparelli-Daquer, E. M. A., Paiva, M. L. M. F., et al. 2007. The self as a moral agent: Linking the neural bases of social agency and moral sensitivity. Social Neuroscience, 2: 336–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moll, J., de Oliveira-Souza, R., Moll, F. T., Ignacio, F. A., Bramati, I. E., Caparelli-Daquer, E. M., et al. 2005. The moral affiliations of disgust: A functional MRI study. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 18: 6878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moll, J., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Zahn, R. 2008. The neural basis of moral cognition: Sentiments, concepts, and values. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124: 161–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moll, J., Zahn, R., de Oliveira-Souza, R., Krueger, F., & Grafman, J. 2005. The neural basis of human moral cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6: 799809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monin, B., Pizarro, D. A., & Beer, J. S. 2007. Deciding versus reacting: Conceptions of moral judgment and the reason-affect debate. Review of General Psychology, 11: 99111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Dougherty, J. P. 2007. Lights, camembert, action! The role of human orbitofrontal cortex in encoding stimuli, rewards, and choices. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1121: 254–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Oliveira-Souza, R., Hare, R. D., Bramati, I. E., Garrido, G. J., Ignacio, F. A., Tovar-Moll, F., & Moll, J. 2008. Psychopathy as a disorder of the moral brain: Fronto-temporo-limbic grey matter reductions demonstrated by voxel-based morphometry. NeuroImage, 40: 1202–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phan, K. L., Magalhaes, A., Ziemlewicz, T. J., Fitzgerald, D. A., Green, C., & Smith, W. 2005. Neural correlates of telling lies: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study at 4 Tesla. Academic Radiology, 12: 164–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phan, K. L., Wager, T., Taylor, S. F., & Liberzon, I. 2002. Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI. Neuroimage, 16: 331–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phelps, E. A. 2006. Emotion and cognition: Insights from the human amygdala. Annual Review of Psychology, 57: 2753.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poldrack, R. A. 2006. Can neurocognitive processes be inferred from neuroimaging data? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10: 5963.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ponemon, L. 1996. Key features of an effective ethics training program. Management Accounting, 78 (October): 6667.Google Scholar
Porter, M. E., & Kramer, M. R. 2006. Strategy and society: The link between competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility. Harvard Business Review, 84(12): 7892.Google Scholar
Quervain, D. J.-F. d., Fischbacher, U., Treyer, V., Schellhammer, M., Schnyder, U., Buck, A., & Fehr, E. 2004. The neural basis of altruistic punishment. Science, 305: 125458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quinn, W. S. 1989a. Actions, intentions, and consequences: The doctrine of doing and allowing. Philosophical Review, 98: 287312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinn, W. S. 1989b. Actions, intentions, and consequences: The doctrine of double effect. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1: 334–51.Google Scholar
Raine, A., & Yang, Y. 2006. Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior. Scan, 1: 20313.Google ScholarPubMed
Rankin, K. P., Gorno-Tempini, M. L., Allison, S. C., Stanley, C. M., Glenn, S., Weiner, M. W., & Miller, B. L. 2006. Structural anatomy of empathy in neurodegenerative disease. Brain, 129: 2945–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rawls, J. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rest, J. R. 1986. Moral development: Advances in research and theory. New York: Praeger Press.Google Scholar
Reynolds, S. J. 2006. A neurocognitive model of the ethical decision-making process: Implications for Study and Practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 737–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, S. J., Leavitt, K., & Decelles, K. A. 2008. Automatic ethics: The effects of implicit assumptions and contextual cues on moral behavior. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Anaheim, California.Google Scholar
Robertson, D., Snarey, J., Ousley, O., Harenski, K., Bowman, F. D., Gilkey, R., & Kilts, C. 2007. The neural processing of moral sensitivity to issues of justice and care. Neuropsychologia, 45: 755–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolls, E. T., Hornak, J., Wade, D., & McGrath, J. 1994. Emotion-related learning in patients with social and emotional changes associated with frontal lobe damage. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 57: 1518–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, S. 2006. The future of the brain: The promise and perils of tomorrow's neuroscience. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Roskies, A. L. 2002. Neuroethics for the new millenium. Neuron, 35: 2123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roskies, A. L. 2008. Neuroimaging and inferential distance. Neuroethics, 1: 1930.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rozin, P., Lowery, L., Imada, S., & Haidt, J. 1999. The CAD triad hypothesis: A mapping between three moral emotions (contempt, anger, disgust) and three moral codes (community, autonomy, divinity). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76: 574–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satpute, A. B., & Lieberman, M. D. 2006. Integrating automatic and controlled processes into neurocognitive models of social cognition. Brain Research, 1079: 8697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeley, W. W., Carlin, D. A., Allman, J. M., Macedo, M. N., Bush, C., Miller, B. L., & DeArmond, S. J. 2006. Early frontotemporal dementia targets neurons unique to apes and humans. Annals of Neurology, 60: 660–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sie, M., & Wouters, A. 2008. The real challenge to free will and responsibility. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12: 34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solomon, R. C. 2003. Victims of circumstances? A defense of virtue ethics in business. Business Ethics Quarterly, 13: 4362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sonenshein, S. 2007. The role of construction, intuition, and justification in responding to ethical issues at work: The sense-making-intuition model. Academy of Management Review, 32: 1022–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, J. R., & Hunt, S. D. 1998. Marketing researcher ethical sensitivity: Conceptualization, measurement, and exploratory investigation. Journal of Marketing, 62: 92109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spitzer, M., Fischbacher, U., Hernberger, B., Gron, G., & Fehr, E. 2007. The neural signature of social norm compliance. Neuron, 56: 185–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tabibnia, G., & Lieberman, M. D. 2007. Fairness and cooperation are rewarding: Evidence from social cognitive neuroscience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1118: 90101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tabibnia, G., Satpute, A. B., & Lieberman, M. D. 2008. The sunny side of fairness: Preference for fairness activates reward circuitry (and disregarding unfairness activates self-control circuitry). Psychological Science, 19: 339–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taft, S. H. & White, J. 2007. Ethics education: Using inductive reasoning to develop individual, group, organizational, and global perspectives. Journal of Management Education, 31: 614–36.Google Scholar
Takahashi, H., Yahata, N., Koeda, M., Matsuda, T., Asai, K., & Okubo, Y. 2004. Brain activation associated with evaluative processes of guilt and embarrassment: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 23: 967–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tenbrunsel, A. E., & Smith-Crowe, K. 2008. Ethical decision-making: Where we've been and where we're going. Academy of Management Annals, 2: 545607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, J. J. 1986. Rights, restitution, and risks (Parent, W., Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Treviño, L. K., & Weaver, G. R. 1994. Business ETHICS/BUSINESS ethics: One field or two? Business Ethics Quarterly, 4: 113–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valdesolo, P., & DeSteno, D. 2006. Manipulations of emotional context shape moral judgment. Psychological Science, 17: 476–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Velez-Garcia, A. E., & Ostrosky-Solis, F. 2006. From morality to moral emotions. International Journal of Psychology, 41: 348–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viscontas, I. V., Possin, K. L. & Miller, B. L. 2007. Symptoms of frontotemporal dementia provide insights into orbitofrontal cortex function and social behavior. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1121: 528–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vuilleumier, P. 2005. How brains beware: Neural mechanisms of emotional attention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9: 585–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wager, T. D., Lindquist, M., & Kaplan, L. 2007. Meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging data: Current and future directions. Scan, 2: 150–58.Google ScholarPubMed
Weaver, G. R., & Treviño, L. K. 1994. Normative and empirical business ethics: Separation, marriage of convenience, or marriage of necessity? Business Ethics Quarterly, 4: 129–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weick, K. 1995. Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Wheatley, T., & Haidt, J. 2005. Hypnotic disgust makes moral judgments more severe. Psychological Science, 16: 780–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitley, D. S. 1998. Cognitive neuroscience, shamanism, and the rock art of native California. Anthropology of Consciousness, 9: 2737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodward, J., & Allman, J. 2007. Moral intuition: Its neural substrates and normative significance. Journal of Physiology-Paris, 101: 179202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, L., Cushman, F., Hauser, M., & Saxe, R. 2007. The neural basis of the interaction between theory of mind and moral judgment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104: 8235–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, L., & Koenigs, M. 2007. Investigating emotion in moral cognition: A review of evidence from functional neuroimaging and neuropsychology. British Medical Bulletin, 84: 6979.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed