Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T05:18:18.387Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pandemics at Work: Convergence of Epidemiology and Ethics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 October 2021

Michele Thornton Open the ORCID record for Michele Thornton [Opens in a new window]  and
William “Marty” Martin
Michele Thornton
Affiliation:
State University of New York at Oswego
William “Marty” Martin
Affiliation:
DePaul University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Like COVID-19, new infectious disease outbreaks emerge almost annually, and studies predict that this trend will continue due to a variety of factors, including an aging population, ease of travel, and globalization of the economy. In response to episodic public health crises, governments and organizations develop, implement, and enforce policies, procedures, protocols, and programs. The epidemiological triad is both a model of disease causation and fundamentally used to design and deploy such control measures. Here we adapt this model to the workplace setting and use the epidemiological triad to characterize the related ethical challenges in implementing the control measures employers face as a guide for a workplace intervention framework. Through this approach, our aim is to show how an integrated ethical framework, grounded in epidemiological principles, has important implications for how we categorize, understand, and resolve the difficult decisions that emerge in the workplace under pandemic conditions.

Keywords

ethical decision-makingorganizational managementbioethicspublic healthpandemicCOVID-19
Type
Article
Information
Business Ethics Quarterly , Volume 32 , Issue 1 , January 2022 , pp. 41 - 74
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for Business Ethics

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abbasi, M., Majdzadeh, R., Zali, A., Karimi, A., & Akrami, F. 2018. The evolution of public health ethics frameworks: Systematic review of moral values and norms in public health policy. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 21(3): 387–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al Amir, K. 2020. Coronavirus: Closure of educational institutions in Bahrain extended. Gulf News, May 15. https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/bahrain/coronavirus-closure-of-educational-institutions-in-bahrain-extended-1.1583430633971.Google Scholar
Alon, T., Doepke, M., Olmstead-Rumsey, J., & Tertilt, M. 2020. The impact of COVID-19 on gender equality. Working Paper No. W26947, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alsan, M. M., Westerhaus, M., Herce, M., Nakashima, K., & Farmer, P. E. 2011. Poverty, global health, and infectious disease: Lessons from Haiti and Rwanda. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, 25(3): 611–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnold, D. G., Audi, R., & Zwolinski, M. 2010. Recent work in ethical theory and its implications for business ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(4): 559–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bagenstose, K., Chadde, S., & Wynn, M. 2020. Coronavirus at meatpacking plants worse than first thought, USA TODAY investigation finds. USA Today, May 2. https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/investigations/2020/04/22/meat-packing-plants-covid-may-force-choice-worker-health-food/2995232001/.Google Scholar
Balfe, S. C. 2015. An employer’s top 10 considerations for pandemic preparedness. Journal of Health and Biomedical Law, 11: 1–8.Google Scholar
Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. 1994. Principles of biomedical ethics (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. 2013. Principles of biomedical ethics (7th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Beauchamp, T., & Childress, J. 2019. Principles of biomedical ethics: Marking its fortieth anniversary. American Journal of Bioethics, 19(11): 9–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beeres, D. T., Cornish, D., Vonk, M., Ravensbergen, S. J., Maeckelberghe, E. L. M., Van Hensbroek, P. B., & Stienstra, Y. 2018. Screening for infectious diseases of asylum seekers upon arrival: The necessity of the moral principle of reciprocity. BMC Medical Ethics, 19(1): 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bloom, D. E., Black, S., & Rappuoli, R. 2017. Emerging infectious diseases: A proactive approach. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(16): 4055–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks, S. K., Dunn, R., Amlôt, R., Rubin, G. J., & Greenberg, N. 2018. A systematic, thematic review of social and occupational factors associated with psychological outcomes in healthcare employees during an infectious disease outbreak. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60(3): 248–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. 2005. Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2): 117–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brunk, K. H. 2010. Exploring origins of ethical company/brand perceptions: A consumer perspective of corporate ethics. Journal of Business Research, 63(3): 255–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burdorf, A., Porru, F., & Rugulies, R. 2020. The COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic: Consequences for occupational health. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment, and Health, 46(3): 229–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, B. M. S. 2010. Nature as historical protagonist: Environment and society in pre-industrial England. Economic History Review, 63(2): 281–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, C., & McAvoy, G. 2020. Florida fruit and vegetable growers’ adaptation and response to COVID-19. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 9(4): 165–69.Google Scholar
Canhoto, A. I., & Wei, L. 2021. Stakeholders of the world, unite! Hospitality in the time of COVID-19. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 95: 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caplan, A. 2013. Liberty has its responsibilities. Human Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, 9(12): 2666–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, R., Green, A. L., Norton, D. M., Frick, R., Tobin-D’Angelo, M., Reimann, D. W., Blade, H., Nicholas, D. C., Egan, J. S., Everstine, K., & Brown, L. G. 2013. Food worker experiences with and beliefs about working while ill. Journal of Food Protection, 76(12): 2146–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015. Epidemiology glossary: Epidemic. https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/data_stats/glossary.html.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020a. COVID-19 information and resources: People with disabilities. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-disabilities.html.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020b. Meat and poultry processing workers and employers. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/organizations/meat-poultry-processing-workers-employers.html.Google Scholar
Childress, J. F., Faden, R. R., Gaare, R. D., Gostin, L. O., Kahn, J., Bonnie, R. J., Kass, N. E., Mastroianni, A. C., Moreno, J. D., & Nieburg, P. 2002. Public health ethics: Mapping the terrain. Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics, 30(2): 170–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clem, A., & Galwankar, S. 2009. Swine influenza A (H1N1) strikes a potential for global disaster. Journal of Emergencies, Trauma, and Shock, 2(2): 99–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cochrane, E., Weiland, N., & Sanger-Katz, M. 2020. US health workers responding to coronavirus lacked training and protective gear, whistle-blower says. New York Times, April 17. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/27/us/politics/coronavirus-us-whistleblower.html.Google Scholar
Creswell, J. 2020. What happens in Vegas if no one stays in Vegas? New York Times, March 15. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/03/business/coronavirus-business-travel.html.Google Scholar
Cropanzano, R., Bowen, D., & Gilliland, S. 2007. The management of organizational justice. Academy of Management Perspectives, 21: 24–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunha, M., Rego, A., & Vaccaro, A. 2014. Organizations as human communities and internal markets: Searching for duality. Journal of Business Ethics, 120(4): 441–55.Google Scholar
Dahlmann, F., Branicki, L., & Brammer, S. 2019. Managing carbon aspirations: The influence of corporate climate change targets on environmental performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 158(1): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeSilver, D. 2020. As coronavirus spreads, which US workers have paid sick leave—and which don’t? Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/12/as-coronavirus-spreads-which-u-s-workers-have-paid-sick-leave-and-which-dont/.Google Scholar
Dickson, E. 2020. New map shows COVID-19 is hitting people of color hardest. Rolling Stone, April 2. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/covid19-coronavirus-pandemic-low-income-people-new-york-city-976670/.Google Scholar
Dowling, G. R. 2014. The curious case of corporate tax avoidance: Is it socially irresponsible? Journal of Business Ethics, 124(1): 173–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, S. J. 2016. Editorial: The precautionary paradox and Zika. Research Ethics, 12(4): 178–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egger, G., Swinburn, B., & Rossner, S. 2003. Dusting off the epidemiological triad: Could it work with obesity? Obesity Reviews, 4(2): 115–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emanuel, E. J., Persad, G., Upshur, R., Thome, B., Parker, M., Glickman, A., Zhang, C., Boyle, C., Smith, M., & Phillips, J. P. 2020. Fair allocation of scarce medical resources in the time of COVID-19. New England Journal of Medicine, 382(21): 2049–55.Google ScholarPubMed
Fairchild, A. L., Haghdoost, A. A., Bayer, R., Selgelid, M. J., Dawson, A., Saxena, A., & Reis, A. 2017. Ethics of public health surveillance: New guidelines. The Lancet Public Health, 2(8): e348–49.Google ScholarPubMed
Fan, V. Y., Jamison, D. T., & Summers, L. H. 2018. Pandemic risk: How large are the expected losses? Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 96(2): 129–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrell, O. C. 2004. Business ethics and customer stakeholders. Academy of Management Executive, 18(2): 126–29.Google Scholar
Fisher, J. 2001. Lessons for business ethics from bioethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 34(1): 15–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flores, L. Y., Martinez, L. D., McGillen, G. G., & Milord, J. 2019. Something old and something new: Future directions in vocational research with people of color in the United States. Journal of Career Assessment, 27(2): 187–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foldvary, F. E. 2011. Positive rights. In Chatterjee, D. K. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of global justice: 882–83. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, R. E. 1994. The politics of stakeholder theory: Some future directions. Business Ethics Quarterly, 4(4): 409–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, A. L., & Miles, S. 2002. Developing stakeholder theory. Journal of Management Studies, 39(1): 1–21.Google Scholar
Geppert, C. M. A. 2020. The return of the plague: A primer on pandemic ethics. Federal Practitioner: For the Health Care Professionals of the VA, DoD, and PHS, 37(4): 158–59.Google ScholarPubMed
Giubilini, A. 2021. Vaccination ethics. British Medical Bulletin, 137(1): 4–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gostin, L. O., & Wiley, L. F. 2016. Public health law. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gostin, L. O., & Wiley, L. F. 2020. Governmental public health powers during the COVID-19 pandemic: Stay-at-home orders, business closures, and travel restrictions. JAMA, 323(21): 2137–38.Google ScholarPubMed
Hall, S. A. 1992. Should public health respect autonomy? Journal of Medical Ethics, 18(4): 197–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, I. A. 2020. Google, Facebook, Amazon, Microsoft, and Twitter ask employees to stay away from Silicon Valley and Seattle HQs as they hunker down against coronavirus. Insider, March 6. https://www.businessinsider.com/facebook-google-amazon-twitter-microsoft-headquarters-close-coronavirus-2020-3.Google Scholar
Han, P. K. J., Zikmund-Fisher, B. J., Duarte, C. W., Knaus, M., Black, A., Scherer, A. M., & Fagerlin, A. 2018. Communication of scientific uncertainty about a novel pandemic health threat: Ambiguity aversion and its mechanisms. Journal of Health Communication, 23(5): 435–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haslam, J., & Redman, M. 2020. When demand outstrips supply: A Christian view of the ethics of healthcare resource allocation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Christian Journal for Global Health, 7(1): 13–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helzer, E. G., & Rosenzweig, E. 2020. Examining the role of harm-to-others in lay perceptions of greed. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 160: 106–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heymann, D. L., & Shindo, N. 2020. COVID-19: What is next for public health? The Lancet, 395(10224): 542–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussain, S. 2020. Fear of coronavirus fuels racist sentiment targeting Asians. Los Angeles Times, February 3. https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2020-02-03/fear-panic-around-the-coronavirus-fuels-racist-sentiment.Google Scholar
International Labour Organization. 2020. As job losses escalate, nearly half of global workforce at risk of losing livelihoods. Press release, April 29. https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_743036/.Google Scholar
Jeffrey, D. I. 2020. Relational ethical approaches to the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Medical Ethics, 46: 495–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jennings, B. 2019. Relational ethics for public health: Interpreting solidarity and care. Health Care Analysis, 27(1): 4–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kantamneni, N. 2020. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on marginalized populations in the United States: A research agenda. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 119: 103439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaptein, M. 2017. The battle for business ethics: A struggle theory. Journal of Business Ethics, 144(2): 343–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kass, N. E. 2001. An ethics framework for public health. American Journal of Public Health, 91(11): 1776–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaur, G., Sachdeva, S., Jha, D., & Sulania, A. 2017. Ebola virus disease in the light of epidemiological triad. Tropical Journal of Medical Research, 20(1): 1–9.Google Scholar
Kavanagh, A. M., Mason, K. E., Bentley, R. J., Studdert, D. M., McVernon, J., Fielding, J. E., Petrony, S., Gurrin, L., & LaMontagne, A. D. 2012. Leave entitlements, time off work and the household financial impacts of quarantine compliance during an H1N1 outbreak. BMC Infectious Diseases, 12: 2–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kilcullen, M., & Ohles Kooistra, J. 1999. At least do no harm: Sources on the changing role of business ethics and corporate social responsibility. Reference Services Review, 27(2): 158–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koh, D. 2020. Occupational risks for COVID-19 infection. Occupational Medicine, 70(1): 3–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumar, S., Quinn, S. C., Kim, K. H., Daniel, L. H., & Freimuth, V. S. 2012. The impact of workplace policies and other social factors on self-reported influenza-like illness incidence during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. American Journal of Public Health, 102(1): 134–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kupferschmidt, K., & Cohen, J. 2020. Will novel virus go pandemic or be contained? Science, 367(6478): 610–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lam, S. K. K., Kwong, E. W. Y., Hung, M. S. Y., & Chien, W. T. 2020. Investigating the strategies adopted by emergency nurses to address uncertainty and change in the event of emerging infectious diseases: A grounded theory study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(7): 2–13.Google ScholarPubMed
Lam, S. K. K., Kwong, E. W. Y., Hung, M. S. Y., Pang, S. M. C., & Chien, W. T. 2019. A qualitative descriptive study of the contextual factors influencing the practice of emergency nurses in managing emerging infectious diseases. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 14(1): 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, Y. C. 2012. International visitors and returning employees. Workplace Health and Safety, 60(2): 52–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Last, J. M. 2001. A dictionary of epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lee, L. M. 2017. A bridge back to the future: Public health ethics, bioethics, and environmental ethics. American Journal of Bioethics, 17(9): 5–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewnard, J. A., & Lo, N. C. 2020. Scientific and ethical basis for social-distancing interventions against COVID-19. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 20(6): 631–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, J. Y., You, Z., Wang, Q., Zhou, Z. J., Qiu, Y., Luo, R., & Ge, X. 2020. The epidemic of 2019-novel-coronavirus (2019-nCoV) pneumonia and insights for emerging infectious diseases in the future. Microbes and Infection, 22(2): 80–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, L., Xu, W., Wagner, A. L., Dong, X., Yin, J., Zhang, Y., & Boulton, M. L. 2019. Evaluation of health education interventions on Chinese factory workers’ knowledge, practices, and behaviors related to infectious disease. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 12(1): 70–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lurie, M. N., & Stuckler, D. 2014. The role of mining in the spread of TB in Africa: Policy implications. Expert Review in Anti-infective Therapy, 8(11): 1205–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maak, T., & Pless, N. M. 2009. Business leaders as citizens of the world. Advancing humanism on a global scale. Journal of Business Ethics, 88(3): 537–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macpherson, C. C. 2013. Climate change is a bioethics problem. Bioethics, 27(6): 305–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manuel, T., & Herron, T. L. 2020. An ethical perspective of business CSR and the COVID-19 pandemic. Society and Business Review, 15(3): 235–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martins da Silva, S. J., & Campo-Engelstein, L. 2021. Assisted reproductive technology, justice and autonomy in an era of COVID-19. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 42(2): 287–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matose, T., & Lanphier, E. 2020. Rights don’t stand alone: Responsibility for rights in a pandemic. American Journal of Bioethics, 20(7): 169–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matsakis, L. 2020. As COVID-19 spreads, Amazon tries to curb mask price gouging. Wired, February 25. https://www.wired.com/story/covid-19-amazon-curb-face-mask-price-gouging/.Google Scholar
Maunder, R. G., Lancee, W. J., Balderson, K. E., Bennett, J. P., Borgundvaag, B., Evans, S., Fernandes, C. M. B., Goldbloom, D. S., Gupta, M., Hunter, J. J., Hall, L. M., Nagle, L. M., Pain, C., Peczeniuk, S. S., Raymond, G., Read, N., Rourke, S. B., Steinberg, R. J., Stewart, T. E., VanDeVelde-Coke, S., Veldhorst, G. G., & Wasylenki, D. A. 2006. Long-term psychological and occupational effects of providing hospital healthcare during SARS outbreak. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(12): 1924–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mausner, J. S., Kramer, S., & Bahn, A. K. 1985. Epidemiology: An introductory text. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.Google Scholar
McQuoid-Mason, D. J. 2020. COVID-19: May healthcare practitioners ethically and legally refuse to work at hospitals and health establishments where frontline employees are not provided with personal protective equipment? South African Journal of Bioethics and Law, 13(1): 11–14.Google Scholar
Meyer, G., & Williams, A. 2020. Coronavirus: Return to work divides US meat industry. Financial Times, May 5. https://www.ft.com/content/f6e2b4ad-4a62-4c6f-8348-38704e3e81f6.Google Scholar
Mill, J. S. 2003. On Liberty. 1859. New York: J. W. Parker.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R. K., Agle, B. R., & Wood, D. J. 1997. Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: Defining the principle of who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 22(4): 853–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morens, D. M., Folkers, G. K., & Fauci, A. S. 2009. What is a pandemic? Journal of Infectious Diseases, 200(7): 1018–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, E. 2019. Ethics in health administration: A practical approach for decision makers (4th ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning.Google Scholar
Narula, N., & Singh, H. S. 2020. NYC innocence lost: Cardiology in the COVID-19 pandemic. Circulation, 141(25): 2039–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 2020. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). April 25. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/emres/2019_ncov.html.Google Scholar
National Institutes of Health. 2020. Fact sheet: Explaining Operation Warp Speed. April 27. https://prevention.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/2020/06/fact-sheet-explaining-operation-warp-speed.Google Scholar
National Nurses United. 2020. Nation’s hospitals unprepared for COVID-19. Press release, February 28. https://www.nationalnursesunited.org/press/nations-hospitals-unprepared-covid-19.Google Scholar
National Science Foundation. 2020. The state of US science and engineering 2020. January 7. https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20201/u-s-r-d-performance-and-funding.Google Scholar
Nii-Trebi, N. I. 2017. Emerging and neglected infectious diseases: Insights, advances, and challenges. BioMed Research International, 2017: 1–15.Google Scholar
Nixon, S. A. 2019. The coin model of privilege and critical allyship: Implications for health. BMC Public Health, 19(1): 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Brien, J., & Chantler, C. 2003. Confidentiality and the duties of care. Journal of Medical Ethics, 29(1): 36–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Occupational and Safety Health Administration. 2020. Guidance on preparing workplaces for COVID-19. January 23. https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/publications/OSHA3990.pdf.Google Scholar
O’Neill, O. 2001. Practical principles and practical judgment. Hastings Center Report, 31(4): 15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, Y. J., & Skoric, M. 2017. Personalized ad in your Google Glass? Wearable technology, hands-off data collection, and new policy imperative. Journal of Business Ethics, 142(1): 71–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, J., Boles, C., Egnot, N., Sundermann, A., & Fleeger, A. 2020. Return to normal operations: COVID-19 mitigation strategies for workplaces. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 36(9): 711–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peckham, R. 2013. Economies of contagion: Financial crisis and pandemic. Economy and Society, 42(2): 226–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pendo, E., Gatter, R., & Mohapatra, S. 2020. Resolving tensions between disability rights law and COVID-19 mask policies. Maryland Law Review Online, 80(1): 1–12.Google Scholar
Phua, K.-L. 2013. Ethical dilemmas in protecting individual rights versus public protection in the case of infectious diseases. Infectious Diseases: Research and Treatment, 6: 1–5.Google ScholarPubMed
Pugh, J., & Douglas, T. 2016. Justifications for non-consensual medical intervention: From infectious disease control to criminal rehabilitation. Criminal Justice Ethics, 35(3): 205–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rawls, J. 2005. A theory of justice. Delhi: Universal Law.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rhodes, C. 2016. Democratic business ethics: Volkswagen’s emissions scandal and the disruption of corporate sovereignty. Organization Studies, 37(10): 1501–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rich, M., Dooley, B., & Inoue, M. 2020. Japan shocks parents by moving to close all schools over coronavirus. New York Times, February 27. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/27/world/asia/japan-schools-coronavirus.html.Google Scholar
Robert, A. 2020. How can employers stop discrimination during the coronavirus pandemic? ABA Journal, April 1. https://www.abajournal.com/web/article/how-can-employers-stop-discrimination-during-the-coronavirus-pandemic.Google Scholar
Rogalski, M. A., Gowler, C. D., Shaw, C. L., Hufbauer, R. A., & Duffy, M. A. 2017. Human drivers of ecological and evolutionary dynamics in emerging and disappearing infectious disease systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 372: 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, R. 2020. First it was masks; now some refuse testing for SARS-CoV-2. JAMA, 324(20): 2015–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russon, G. 2020. Walt Disney Co. is laying off 28,000 US employees. Orlando Sentinel, October 22. https://www.orlandosentinel.com/business/tourism/os-bz-disney-layoffs-coronavirus-20200929-kdk7l2j3pbdhlax5uadzx22sju-story.html.Google Scholar
Russon, G. 2021. Disney World opens a vaccine site for its employees. Orlando Sentinel, April 10. https://www.orlandosentinel.com/business/tourism/os-bz-disney-world-vaccines-20210407-qsctqznieraolmixatzciovbnq-story.html.Google Scholar
Ryan, M. P. 2005. Introduction: Ethical responsibilities regarding drugs, patents, and health. Business Ethics Quarterly, 15(4): 543–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saunders, B. (2017). First, do no harm: Generalized procreative non-maleficence. Bioethics, 31(7), 552–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheiber, N., & Conger, K. 2020. Coronavirus prompts Instacart and Amazon strikes over health concerns. New York Times, April 5. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/30/business/economy/coronavirus-instacart-amazon.html.Google Scholar
Selgelid, M. J., McLean, A. R., Arinaminpathy, N., & Savulescu, J. 2009. Infectious disease ethics: Limiting liberty in contexts of contagion. Bioethical Inquiry, 6: 149–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simms, M. 2004. On linking business ethics, bioethics and bioterrorism. Journal of Business Ethics, 51(2): 211–20.Google Scholar
Smith, J., & Dubbink, W. 2011. Understanding the role of moral principles in business ethics: A Kantian perspective. Business Ethics Quarterly, 21(2): 205–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, M., & Upshur, R. 2019. Pandemic disease, public health, and ethics. In Mastroianni, N., Kahn, A. C., & Kass, J. P. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of public health ethics: 797–810. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Snider, M. 2020. Coronavirus concerns lead to hoarding, panic buying to stock “pandemic pantries,” Nielsen says. USA Today, March 4. https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2020/03/04/coronavirus-us-spurs-panic-buying-stock-pandemic-pantries/4950835002/.Google Scholar
Society for Human Resource Management Foundation. 2013. SHRM Foundation’s effective practice guideline series: Shaping an ethical workplace culture. February 22. https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/trends-and-forecasting/special-reports-and-expert-views/Documents/Ethical-Workplace-Culture.pdf.Google Scholar
Stedman-Smith, M., DuBois, C. L. Z., Grey, S. F., Kingsbury, D. M., Shakya, S., Scofield, J., & Slenkovich, K. 2015. Outcomes of a pilot hand hygiene randomized cluster trial to reduce communicable infections among US office-based employees. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57(4): 374–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stolberg, S. G., & Liptak, A. 2021. Likely legal, “vaccine passports” emerge as the next coronavirus divide. New York Times, April 6. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/06/us/politics/vaccine-passports-coronavirus.html.Google Scholar
Su, C. P., De Perio, M. A., Cummings, K. J., McCague, A. B., Luckhaupt, S. E., & Sweeney, M. H. 2019. Case investigations of infectious diseases occurring in workplaces, United States, 2006–2015. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 25(3): 397–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, A. K. 2016. Bioethics meets Ebola: Exploring the moral landscape. British Medical Bulletin, 117(1): 5–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Upshur, R. E. G. 2002. Principles for the justification of public health intervention. Canadian Journal of Public Health/Revue Canadienne de Sante’e Publique, 93(2): 101–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
US Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2019. Economic news release: Workers who could work at home, did work at home, and were paid for work at home, by selected characteristics, averages for the period 2017–2018. March 6. https://www.bls.gov/news.release/flex2.t01.htm.Google Scholar
US Chamber of Commerce. 2020. Guidance for employers to plan and respond to coronavirus (COVID-19). https://www.uschamber.com/sites/default/files/guidance_for_employers_to_plan_and_respond_to_the_coronavirus_031620.pdf.Google Scholar
Vonesch, N., Binazzi, A., Bonafede, M., Melis, P., Ruggieri, A., Iavicoli, S., & Tomao, P. 2019. Emerging zoonotic viral infections of occupational health importance. Pathogens and Disease, 77(2): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, J., Zhou, M., & Liu, F. 2020. Reasons for healthcare workers becoming infected with novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China. Journal of Hospital Infection, 105: 100–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wicks, A. C. 1995. The business ethics movement: Where are we headed and what can we learn from our colleagues in bioethics? Business Ethics Quarterly, 5(3): 603–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, W. C. W., Wong, S. Y. S., Lee, A., & Goggins, W. B. 2007. How to provide an effective primary health care in fighting against severe acute respiratory syndrome: The experiences of two cities. American Journal of Infection Control, 35(1): 50–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yam, K. 2020. Asian American New Yorkers experienced highest surge in unemployment during pandemic. NBC News, October 21. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/asian-american-new-yorkers-experienced-highest-surge-unemployment-during-pandemic-n1243894.Google Scholar
Yearby, R., & Mohapatra, S. 2020. Structural discrimination in COVID-19 workplace protections. Health Affairs, May 29. https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20200522.280105/full/.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yue, R. P. H., Lee, H. F., & Wu, C. Y. H. 2017. Trade routes and plague transmission in pre-industrial Europe. Scientific Reports, 7(1): 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed