Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T19:06:45.415Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Business and Human Rights Scholarship in Social Issues in Management: An Analytical Review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 December 2019

Judith SCHREMPF-STIRLING
Affiliation:
Associate Professor, Geneva School of Economics and Management, University of Geneva.
Harry J. VAN BUREN III
Affiliation:
Professor, Anderson School of Management, University of New Mexico; Visiting Professor, Olayan School of Business, American University of Beirut.

Abstract

Business and human rights (BHR) scholarship addresses whether corporations have human rights responsibilities and if so, what such responsibilities mean for corporate behaviour. BHR scholarship is cross-disciplinary and scattered across numerous academic disciplines such as law, philosophy, management, political science and accounting. While BHR scholarship in law is well established, this review focuses on BHR scholarship in the social issues in management (SIM) field, which – like BHR scholarship – addresses the nature and content of corporate responsibility. Based on a review of 180 articles from SIM speciality journals published between 1990 and 2017, the article suggests that BHR research has emerged as a subfield of study within SIM. BHR scholarship to date has largely focused on the justification for why firms have human rights responsibilities, and on descriptive research studies at the organizational and macro level. The article develops a conceptual framework for future BHR research which can usefully guide scholars – both SIM and non-SIM BHR scholars – in identifying potential research gaps and embedding their research in related focus areas.

Type
Scholarly Articles
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Cragg, Wesley, ‘Ethics, Enlightened Self-Interest, and the Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights: A Critical Look at the Justificatory Foundations of the UN Framework’ (2012) 22:1Business Ethics Quarterly 9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Bernaz, Nadia, Business and Human Rights: History, Law and Policy – Bridging the Accountability Gap (Routledge, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Santoro, Michael A, ‘Business and Human Rights in Historical Perspective’ (2015) 14:2Journal of Human Rights 155CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Frey, Barbara A, ‘The Legal and Ethical Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations in the Protection of International Human Rights’ (1997) 6 Minnesota Journal of Global Trade 153Google Scholar; Ratner, Steven R, ‘Corporations and Human Rights: A Theory of Legal Responsibility’ (2001) 111:3The Yale Law Journal 443CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zerk, Jennifer A, Multinationals and Corporate Social Responsibility: Limitations and Opportunities in International Law (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008)Google Scholar.

4 Frey, note 3.

5 Weissbrodt, David and Kruger, Muria, ‘Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights’ (2003) 97:4American Journal of International Law 901CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Bernaz, note 2; Khoury, Stefanie and Whyte, David, Corporate Human Rights Violations: Global Prospects for Legal Action (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 de la Vega, Connie, ‘International Standards on Business and Human Rights: Is Drafting a New Treaty Worth It’ (2017) 51 University of San Francisco Law Review 431Google Scholar; Bernaz, Nadia, ‘Enhancing Corporate Accountability for Human Rights Violations: Is Extraterritoriality the Magic Potion?’ (2013) 117:3Journal of Business Ethics 493CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Arnold, Denis G, ‘Corporations and Human Rights Obligations’ (2016) 1:2Business and Human Rights Journal 255CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Obara, Louise J., ‘“What Does This Mean?”: How UK Companies Make Sense of Human Rights’ (2017) 2:2Business and Human Rights Journal 249CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 McPhail, Ken and Adams, Carol A, ‘Corporate Respect for Human Rights: Meaning, Scope, and the Shifting Order of Discourse’ (2016) 29:4Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 650CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Siddiqui, Javed and Uddin, Shahzad, ‘Human Rights Disasters, Corporate Accountability and the State: Lessons Learned from Rana Plaza’ (2016) 29:4Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal 679CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Giuliani, Elisa and Macchi, Chiara, ‘Multinational Corporations’ Economic and Human Rights Impacts on Developing Countries: A Review and Research Agenda’ (2013) 38:2Cambridge Journal of Economics 479CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Giuliani, Elisa, Macchi, Chiara and Fiaschi, Davide, ‘The Social Irresponsibility of International Business: A Novel Conceptualization’ in International Business and Sustainable Development (Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2014)Google Scholar.

11 Wettstein, Florian et al, ‘International Business and Human Rights: A Research Agenda’ (2019) 54:1Journal of World Business 54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Whiteman, Gail and Cooper, William H, ‘Decoupling Rape’ (2016) 2:2Academy of Management Discoveries 115CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Reinecke, Juliane and Ansari, Shaz, ‘Taming Wicked Problems: The Role of Framing in the Construction of Corporate Social Responsibility’ (2016) 53:3Journal of Management Studies 299CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wettstein, Florian, ‘CSR and the Debate on Business and Human Rights: Bridging the Great Divide’ (2012) 22:4Business Ethics Quarterly 739CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Wood, Donna J and Logsdon, Jeanne M, ‘Social Issues in Management as a Distinct Field: Corporate Social Responsibility and Performance’ (2019) 58.7Business & Society 1334CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Epstein, Edwin M, ‘SIM’s Directions: “Back to the Future”’ (2019) 58:7Business & Society 1418CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cavanagh, Gerald F, ‘Research and Teaching on Social Issues: Some Accomplishments and Future Challenges’ (2019) 58:7Business & Society 1413CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Wood, Donna J, ‘Measuring Corporate Social Performance: A Review’ (2010) 12:1International Journal of Management Reviews 50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Georg Scherer, Andreas and Palazzo, Guido, ‘Toward a Political Conception of Corporate Responsibility: Business and Society Seen from a Habermasian Perspective’ (2007) 32:4Academy of Management Review 1096CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 See Wettstein, Florian, ‘Silence as Complicity: Elements of a Corporate Duty to Speak out Against the Violation of Human Rights’ (2012) 22:1Business Ethics Quarterly 37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wood, Stepan, ‘The Case for Leverage-Based Corporate Human Rights Responsibility’ (2012) 22:1Business Ethics Quarterly 63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 See, e.g., Bishop, John Douglas, ‘The Limits of Corporate Human Rights Obligations and the Rights of for-Profit Corporations’ (2012) 22:1Business Ethics Quarterly 119CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Arnold, note 8; Brenkert, George G, ‘Business Ethics and Human Rights: An Overview’ (2016) 1:2Business and Human Rights Journal 277CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Werhane, Patricia H., ‘Corporate Moral Agency and the Responsibility to Respect Human Rights in the UN Guiding Principles: Do Corporations Have Moral Rights?’ (2016) 1:1Business and Human Rights Journal 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Santoro, Michael A and Wettstein, Florian, ‘Human Rights’ in Griffin, R W (ed.), Management (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014)Google Scholar.

19 Brenkert, note 18.

20 Arnold, note 8.

21 Werhane, note 18.

22 Santoro and Wettstein, note 18.

23 Wood and Logsdon, note 13; Cavanagh, note 13.

24 Mitnick, Barry M, ‘The Distinction of Fields’ (2019) 58:7Business & Society 1309CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Carroll, Archie B, ‘Social Issues in Management: Comments on the Past and Future’ (2019) 58:7Business & Society 1406CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Carroll, note 24.

26 Wood and Logsdon, note 13.

28 Wood, Donna J, ‘Corporate Social Performance Revisited’ (1991) 16:4Journal of Management Review 691Google Scholar; Frederick, William C, ‘From CSR1 to CSR2: The Maturing of Business-and-Society Thought’ (1994) 33:2Business & Society 150CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29 Wood and Logsdon, note 13, 20.

30 Wood, note 14, 50.

31 Epstein, note 13, 4.

32 Aguinis, Herman and Glavas, Ante, ‘What We Know and Don’t Know About Corporate Social Responsibility: A Review and Research Agenda’ (2012) 38:4Journal of Management 932CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Crane, Andrew and Glozer, Sarah, ‘Researching Corporate Social Responsibility Communication: Themes, Opportunities and Challenges’ (2016) 53:7Journal of Management Studies 1223CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goranova, Maria and Verstegen Ryan, Lori, ‘Shareholder Activism: A Multidisciplinary Review’ (2014) 40:5Journal of Management 1230CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 Mayer, Ann E, ‘Human Rights as a Dimension of CSR: The Blurred Lines between Legal and Non-Legal Categories’ (2009) 88:4Journal of Business Ethics 561CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Santoro, Michael A, ‘Post-Westphalia and its Discontents: Business, Globalization, and Human Rights in Political and Moral Perspective’ (2010) 20:2Business Ethics Quarterly 285CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 Hartman, Laura P, Shaw, Bill and Stevenson, Rodney, ‘Exploring the Ethics and Economics of Global Labor Standards: A Challenge to Integrated Social Contract Theory’ (2003) 13:2Business Ethics Quarterly 193CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eweje, Gabriel, ‘Labour Relations and Ethical Dilemmas of Extractive MNEs in Nigeria, South Africa and Zambia: 1950–2000’ (2009) 86:S2Journal of Business Ethics 207CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Radin, Tara J and Calkins, Martin, ‘The Struggle against Sweatshops: Moving toward Responsible Global Business’ (2006) 66:2–3 Journal of Business Ethics 261CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 Hahn, Rüdiger, ‘The Ethical Rational of Business for the Poor – Integrating the Concepts Bottom of the Pyramid, Sustainable Development, and Corporate Citizenship’ (2009) 84:3Journal of Business Ethics 313CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 Chandler, Geoffrey, ‘Oil Companies and Human Rights’ (1998) 7:2Business Ethics: A European Review 69CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 Arikan, Ozlemet al, ‘Signposts or Weathervanes? The Curious Case of Corporate Social Responsibility and Conflict Minerals’ (2017) 146:3Journal of Business Ethics 469CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Joseph, Sarah, ‘“Is Fox News a Breach of Human Rights?”: The News Media’s Immunity from the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights’ (2016) 1:2Business and Human Rights Journal 229CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 Wettstein, note 12; Ramasastry, Anita, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility Versus Business and Human Rights: Bridging the Gap between Responsibility and Accountability’ (2015) 14:2Journal of Human Rights 237CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

41 Wettstein et al, note 11, 55.

42 Wettstein, note 12, 746.

43 Munchus, George, ‘Testing as a Selection Tool: Another Old and Sticky Managerial Human Rights Issue’ (1989) 8:10Journal of Business Ethics 817CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Post, James E, ‘Assessing the Nestlé Boycott: Corporate Accountability and Human Rights’ (1985) 27:2California Management Review 113CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44 Donaldson, Thomas, The Ethics of International Business (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

45 Ramasastry, note 41.

46 Krippendorff, Klaus, ‘Reliability in Content Analysis: Some Common Misconceptions and Recommendations’ (2004) 30:3Human Communication Research 411Google Scholar; Weber, Robert Philip, Basic Content Analysis, vol 49 (Sage, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 Mellahi, Kamelet al, ‘A Review of the Nonmarket Strategy Literature: Toward a Multi-Theoretical Integration’ (2016) 42:1Journal of Management 143CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48 Blanton, Shannon L and Blanton, Robert G, ‘Human Rights and Foreign Direct Investment: A Two-Stage Analysis’ (2006) 45:4Business & Society 464CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harcourt, Sondra and Harcourt, Mark, ‘Do Employers Comply with Civil/Human Rights Legislation? New Evidence from New Zealand Job Application Forms’ (2002) 35:3Journal of Business Ethics 205CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

49 De Bakker, Frank GA, Groenewegen, Peter and Den Hond, Frank, ‘A Bibliometric Analysis of 30 Years of Research and Theory on Corporate Social Responsibility and Corporate Social Performance’ (2005) 44:3Business & Society 283CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 De Bakker, Groenewegen and Den Hond, note 49, 294.

52 Scott, W Richard, Organizations and Institutions: Foundations for Organizational Science (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1995)Google Scholar.

53 Pozzebon, Marlei, ‘The Influence of a Structurationist View on Strategic Management Research’ (2004) 41:2Journal of Management Studies 247CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 Hsieh, Nien-hê, ‘The Responsibilities and Role of Business in Relation to Society: Back to Basics?’ (2017) 27:2Business Ethics Quarterly 293CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 Kobrin, Stephen J, ‘Private Political Authority and Public Responsibility: Transnational Politics, Transnational Firms, and Human Rights’ (2009) 19:3Business Ethics Quarterly 349CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

56 Scherer and Palazzo, note 15.

57 Harcourt and Harcourt, note 48; Eweje, note 34; Blanton and Blanton, note 48; Obara, note 8.

58 McCorquodale, Robert, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility and International Human Rights Law’ (2009) 87:2Journal of Business Ethics 385CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cassel, Doug, ‘Outlining the Case for a Common Law Duty of Care of Business to Exercise Human Rights Due Diligence’ (2016) 1:2Business and Human Rights Journal 179CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

59 Luke, Tracey, ‘The Ethics of Using Trade Policy to Evoke Change: The China–US Example’ (1998) 7:4Business Ethics: A European Review 231CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60 Kim, Tae Wan, ‘Confucian Ethics and Labor Rights’ (2014) 24:4Business Ethics Quarterly 565CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

61 Bishop, John D, ‘For-Profit Corporations in a Just Society: A Social Contract Argument Concerning the Rights and Responsibilities of Corporations’ (2008) 18:2Business Ethics Quarterly 191CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 Hsieh, Nien-hê, ‘The Obligations of Transnational Corporations: Rawlsian Justice and the Duty of Assistance’ (2004) 14:4Business Ethics Quarterly 643, 658CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63 Shane Darcy, ‘“The Elephant in the Room”: Corporate Tax Avoidance and Business and Human Rights’ (2017) 2:1Business and Human Rights Journal 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bilchitz, David, ‘The Necessity for a Business and Human Rights Treaty’ (2016) 1:2Business and Human Rights Journal 203CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

64 Rasche, Andreas and Gilbert, Dirk U, ‘Institutionalizing Global Governance: The Role of the United Nations Global Compact’ (2012) 21:1Business Ethics: A European Review 100CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hira, Anil and Ferrie, Jared, ‘Fair Trade: Three Key Challenges for Reaching the Mainstream’ (2006) 63:2Journal of Business Ethics 107CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Sethi, S Prakashet al, ‘Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold, Inc.: An Innovative Voluntary Code of Conduct to Protect Human Rights, Create Employment Opportunities, and Economic Development of the Indigenous People’ (2011) 103:1Journal of Business Ethics 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 Fasterling, Björn, ‘Human Rights Due Diligence as Risk Management: Social Risk Versus Human Rights Risk’ (2017) 2:2Business and Human Rights Journal 225CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

67 Rice, David, ‘Human Rights Strategies for Corporations’ (2002) 11:2Business Ethics: A European Review 134CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Montgomery, Robert H and Maggio, Gregory F, ‘Fostering Labor Rights in Developing Countries: An Investors’ Approach to Managing Labor Issues’ (2009) 87:1Journal of Business Ethics 199CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

68 Blanton and Blanton, note 48.

69 Behrman, Jack N, ‘Adequacy of International Codes of Behavior’ (2001) 31:1Journal of Business Ethics 51CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70 Puncheva-Michelotti, Petya, Michelotti, Marco and Gahan, Peter, ‘The Relationship between Individuals’ Recognition of Human Rights and Responses to Socially Responsible Companies: Evidence from Russia and Bulgaria’ (2010) 93:4Journal of Business Ethics 583CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

71 Sethi, S Prakash and Schepers, Donald H, ‘United Nations Global Compact: The Promise–Performance Gap’ (2014) 122:2Journal of Business Ethics 193CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72 Janney, Jay J, Dess, Greg and Forlani, Victor, ‘Glass Houses? Market Reactions to Firms Joining the UN Global Compact’ (2009) 90:3Journal of Business Ethics 407CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 Kamminga, Menno T, ‘Company Responses to Human Rights Reports: An Empirical Analysis’ (2016) 1:1Business and Human Rights Journal 95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 Whelan, Glen and Muthuri, Judy, ‘Chinese State-Owned Enterprises and Human Rights: The Importance of National and Intra-Organizational Pressures’ (2017) 56:5Business & Society 738CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 Puncheva-Michelotti et al, note 70.

76 Hahn, Tobiaset al, ‘Ambidexterity for Corporate Social Performance’ (2016) 37:2Organization Studies 213CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Waddock, Sandra A and Graves, Samuel B, ‘The Corporate Social Performance–Financial Performance Link’ (1997) 18:4Strategic Management Journal 3033.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Orlitzky, Marc, Schmidt, Frank L and Rynes, Sara L, ‘Corporate Social and Financial Performance: A Meta-Analysis’ (2003) 24:3Organization Studies 403CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

77 Mena, Sébastien and Palazzo, Guido, ‘Input and Output Legitimacy of Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives’ (2012) 22:3Business Ethics Quarterly 527CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 Den Hond, Frank and De Bakker, Frank GA, ‘Ideologically Motivated Activism: How Activist Groups Influence Corporate Social Change Activities’ (2007) 32:3Academy of Management Review 901CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mena, Sébastien and Waeger, Daniel, ‘Activism for Corporate Responsibility: Conceptualizing Private Regulation Opportunity Structures’ (2014) 51:7Journal of Management Studies 1091Google Scholar.

79 Baron, David P, ‘Integrated Strategy: Market and Nonmarket Components’ (1995) 37:2California Management Review 47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Doh, Jonathan P, Lawton, Thomas C and Rajwani, Tazeeb, ‘Advancing Nonmarket Strategy Research: Institutional Perspectives in a Changing World’ (2012) 26:3The Academy of Management Perspectives 22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 Westermann-Behaylo, Michelle K, Rehbein, Kathleen and Fort, Timothy, ‘Enhancing the Concept of Corporate Diplomacy: Encompassing Political Corporate Social Responsibility, International Relations, and Peace through Commerce’ (2015) 29:4The Academy of Management Perspectives 387CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

81 Granovetter, Mark S, ‘The Strength of Weak Ties’ (1977) 78:6American Journal of Sociology 1360CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pfeffer, Jeffrey and Salancik, Gerald R, The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective (Stanford University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Rowley, Timothy J, ‘Moving Beyond Dyadic Ties: A Network Theory of Stakeholder Influences’ (1997) 22:4Academy of Management Review 887CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

82 DiMaggio, Paul J and Powell, Walter W, ‘The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields’ (2000) 48:2American Sociological Review 147CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

83 Thornton, Patricia H, Ocasio, William and Lounsbury, Michael, The Institutional Logics Perspective: A New Approach to Culture, Structure, and Process (Oxford University Press on Demand, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 Dacin, M Tina, Dacin, Peter A and Tracey, Paul, ‘Social Entrepreneurship: A Critique and Future Directions’ (2011) 22:5Organization Science 1203CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dorado, Silvia, ‘Small Groups as Context for Institutional Entrepreneurship: An Exploration of the Emergence of Commercial Microfinance in Bolivia’ (2013) 34:4Organization Studies 533CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

85 Suchman, Mark C, ‘Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches’ (1995) 20:3Academy of Management Review 571CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

86 Kostova, Tatiana and Zaheer, Srilata, ‘Organizational Legitimacy under Conditions of Complexity: The Case of the Multinational Enterprise’ (1999) 24:1Academy of Management Review 64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

87 Bansal, Pratima and Clelland, Iain, ‘Talking Trash: Legitimacy, Impression Management, and Unsystematic Risk in the Context of the Natural Environment’ (2004) 47:1Academy of Management Journal 93Google Scholar.

88 Godfrey, Paul C, ‘The Relationship between Corporate Philanthropy and Shareholder Wealth: A Risk Management Perspective’ (2005) 30:4Academy of Management Review 777CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

89 Aguinis and Glavas, note 32, 933.

90 Mellahi et al, note 47, 165.

91 Christensen, Lisa Jones, Mackey, Alison and Whetten, David, ‘Taking Responsibility for Corporate Social Responsibility: The Role of Leaders in Creating, Implementing, Sustaining, or Avoiding Socially Responsible Firm Behaviors’ (2014) 28:2The Academy of Management Perspectives 164CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

92 Obara, note 8.

93 Ibid, 83.

94 Burke, Peter J, ‘Identity Processes and Social Stress’ (1991) 56:6American Sociological Review 836CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

95 Carmeli, Abraham, Gilat, Gershon and Waldman, David A, ‘The Role of Perceived Organizational Performance in Organizational Identification, Adjustment and Job Performance’ (2007) 44:6Journal of Management Studies 972CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96 Obara, note 8.

97 Ring, Peter Smith and Rands, Gordon P, ‘Sensemaking, Understanding, and Committing: Emergent Interpersonal Transaction Processes in the Evolution of 3M’s Microgravity Research Program’ (1989) Research on the Management of Innovation: The Minnesota Studies 337Google Scholar.

98 Karl E Weick, Sensemaking in Organizations, vol 3 (Sage, 1995).

99 Schouten, Esther MJ and Remmé, Joop, ‘Making Sense of Corporate Social Responsibility in International Business: Experiences from Shell’ (2006) 15:4Business Ethics: A European Review 365CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

100 Shawn L Berman and Michael E Johnson-Cramer, ‘Stakeholder Theory: Seeing the Field through the Forest’ (2019) 58:7 Business & Society 1358; Douglas A Schuler, Kathleen Rehbein and Colby D Green, ‘Is Corporate Political Activity a Field?’ (2019) 58:7 Business & Society 1376.

101 Hambrick, Donald C and Chen, Ming-Jer, ‘New Academic Fields as Admittance-Seeking Social Movements: The Case of Strategic Management’ (2008) 33:1Academy of Management Review 32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

102 Wettstein, note 12, 750.

103 Ramasastry, note 40.

104 Andiappan, P, Reavley, M and Silver, S, ‘Discrimination Against Pregnant Employees: An Analysis of Arbitration and Human Rights Tribunal Decisions in Canada’ (1990) 9:2Journal of Business Ethics 143CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Block, Walter, ‘Discrimination: An Interdisciplinary Analysis’ (1992) 11:4Journal of Business Ethics 241CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Davies, Iain A and Crane, Andrew, ‘Ethical Decision Making in Fair Trade Companies’ (2003) 45:1–2 Journal of Business Ethics 79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

105 Although see Clapham, Andrew, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Clapham, Andrew and Jerbi, Scott, ‘Categories of Corporate Complicity in Human Rights Abuses’ (2000) 24 Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 339Google Scholar; Ratner, note 3.

106 Cragg, Wesley, ‘Human Rights and Business Ethics: Fashioning a New Social Contract’ (2000) 27:1Journal of Business Ethics 205CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Frankental, Peter, ‘The UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a Corporate Code of Conduct’ (2002) 11:2Business Ethics: A European Review 129CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Frederick, William C, ‘The Moral Authority of Transnational Corporate Codes’ (1991) 10:3Journal of Business Ethics 165CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

107 Wettstein, note 16.

108 Arkani, Sep and Theobald, Robin, ‘Corporate Involvement in Human Rights: Is It Any of Their Business?’ (2005) 14:3Business Ethics: A European Review 190CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Holliday, Ian, ‘Doing Business with Rights Violating Regimes Corporate Social Responsibility and Myanmar’s Military Junta’ (2005) 61:4Journal of Business Ethics 329CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 Campbell, Tom, ‘A Human Rights Approach to Developing Voluntary Codes of Conduct for Multinational Corporations’ (2006) 16:2Business Ethics Quarterly 255CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Kobrin, note 55.

110 Hamann, Ralphet al, ‘Business and Human Rights in South Africa: An Analysis of Antecedents of Human Rights Due Diligence’ (2009) 87:2Journal of Business Ethics 453CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

111 Obara, note 8.

112 Kamminga, note 81; Thompson, Benjamin, ‘Determining Criteria to Evaluate Outcomes of Businesses’ Provision of Remedy: Applying a Human Rights-Based Approach’ (2017) 2:1Business and Human Rights Journal 55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

113 Hambrick and Chen, note 101, 37.

114 Ghoshal, Sumantra, ‘Bad Management Theories Are Destroying Good Management Practices’ (2005) 4:1Academy of Management Learning & Education 75CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Walsh, James P, Meyer, Alan D and Schoonhoven, Claudia Bird, ‘A Future for Organization Theory: Living in and Living with Changing Organizations’ (2006) 17:5Organization Science 657CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

115 Santoro, note 2, 157.