Hostname: page-component-669899f699-g7b4s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-30T07:30:33.493Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Postnatal care in pigs

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 February 2018

P. E. Hughes
P. E. Hughes*
Affiliation:
University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
Get access

Abstract

In the pig industry the mortality of piglets both during the birth process and in the subsequent 3 to 5 weeks is unacceptably high. This review attempts to summarize the major causes of these losses and to suggest means whereby such losses may be minimized in the commercial situation. Stillbirth rate is discussed in relation to various management regimes and it is concluded that anoxia (the primary cause of intra-partum piglet deaths) may be minimized by the provision of careful assistance during the birth process. Pre-weaning mortality is presented as a complex interaction of factors predominant amongst which are overlying by the sow, chilling, starvation and infection. Each of these areas is discussed in detail and recommendations are made to reduce their negative influence on the survival rate of piglets. Finally, the rōle of piglet activity level/vigour is considered in relation to pre-weaning survival rate. Various factors are discussed in relation to piglet vigour and it is concluded that the two major contributors to low activity level/vigour are intra-partum hypoxia and the endocrine status of the sow and piglet at birth. To reduce hypoxia, careful intervention is again suggested. The rôle of endocrine status is yet to be fully established but promising results are presented on the use of oestradiol treatment of piglets at birth to raise activity level and reduce pre-weaning mortality rate.

Type
Research Article
Information
BSAP Occasional Publication , Volume 15 , 1992 , pp. 149 - 161
Copyright
Copyright © British Society of Animal Production 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aherne, F. X. 1982. Some management practices affecting the survival and growth rate of suckling pigs. Annual feeders day report, Department of Animal Science, University of Alberta no. 61, pp. 78–79.Google Scholar
Bate, L. A. and Hacker, R. R. 1982a. Estrogens and piglet viability. 1. Serum estrogen concentrations in piglets. Journal of Animal Science 54:1012–1016.Google Scholar
Bate, L. A. and Hacker, R. R. 1982b. Estrogens and piglet viability. II. Effect of estrogen on piglet viability. Journal of Animal Science 54:1017–1022.Google Scholar
Bate, L. A., Kreukniet, M. B. and Hacker, R. R. 1985. The relationship between serum testosterone levels, sex and teat-seeking ability of newborn piglets. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 65: 627–630.Google Scholar
Baxter, M. R. 1982. The nesting behaviour of sows and its disturbance by confinement at farrowing. In Disturbed behaviour in farm animals (ed. Bessei, W.). Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart, FRG.Google Scholar
Baxter, S. H. 1989. Designing the pig pen. In Manipulating pig production II (ed. Barnett, J. L. and Hennessy, D. P.). APSA, Australia.Google Scholar
Bille, N., Nielsen, N. C., Larsen, J. L. and Svendsen, J. 1974. Preweaning mortality in pigs. Nordisk Veterinarmedicin 26: 294–313.Google ScholarPubMed
Blecha, F. and Kelley, K. W. 1981. Cold stress reduces the acquisition of colostral immunoglobulin in piglets. Journal of Animal Science 52: 595–600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bunger, B. 1985. [Ethological method for assessing the vitality of newborn piglets]. Monatshefte für Veterinarmedizin 40: 519–524.Google Scholar
Coggins, E. G., van Horn, D. and First, N. L. 1977. Influence of prostaglandin F2α, dexamethasone, progesterone and induced corpora lutea on porcine parturition. Journal of Animal Science 45: 754–762.Google Scholar
Cole, D. J. A. 1989. Nutritional strategies for breeding sows. In Manipulating pig production II (ed. Barnett, J. L. and Hennessy, D. P.). APSA, Australia.Google Scholar
Collins, E. R., Kornegay, E. T. and Bonnette, E. D. 1987. The effects of two confinement systems on the performance of nursing sows and their litters. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 17: 51–59.Google Scholar
Craig, J. V., Norton, H. W. and Terrill, S. W. 1956. A genetic study of weight at five ages in Hampshire swine. Journal of Animal Science 15: 242–256.Google Scholar
Crenshaw, M. C., Meschia, G. and Barrow, D. H. 1966. Role of progesterone in inhibition of muscle tone and respiratory rhythm in foetal lambs. Nature, London 212: 842.Google Scholar
Cronin, G. M. 1989. Neonatal mortality in the pig. In Manipulating pig production II (ed. Barnett, J. L. and Hennessy, D. P.). APSA, Australia.Google Scholar
Cronin, G. M. and van Amerongen, G. 1991. The effects of modifying the farrowing environment on sow behaviour and survival and growth of piglets. Applied Animal Behaviour Science In press.Google Scholar
Cronin, G. M. and Cropley, J. A. 1991. The effect of piglet stimuli on the posture changing behaviour of recently farrowed sows. Applied Animal Behaviour Science In press.Google Scholar
Curtis, J. and Bourne, F. J. 1971. Immunoglobulin quantitation in sow serum, colostrum and milk and the serum of young pigs. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 236: 319–327.Google Scholar
Curtis, S. E. 1974. Responses of the piglet to perinatal stressors. Journal of Animal Science 38: 1031–1036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtis, S. E., Hurst, R. J., Widowski, T. M., Shanks, R. D. Jensen, A. H., Gonyou, H. W., Bane, D. P., Muehling, A. J. and Kesler, R. P. 1989. Effects of sow-crate design on health and performance of sow and piglets. Journal of Animal Science 67: 80–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dale, H. E. 1975. Energy metabolism. In Duke's physiology of domestic animals, 8th ed. Comstock Publishing Association, Ithaca, New York.Google Scholar
Dawes, G. S. and Parry, H. B. 1965. Premature delivery and survival in lambs. Nature, London 207: 300.Google Scholar
Devilat, J., Camps, J. and Skoknic, A. 1971. Farrowing crate and conventional pen for sows. Journal of Animal Science 33: 208 (abstr.).Google Scholar
Drew, M. D. and Owen, B. D. 1988. The provision of passive immunity to colostrum-deprived piglets by bovine or porcine serum immunoglobulin. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 68: 1277–1284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunne, H. W. and Leman, A. D. 1975. Disease of swine. 4th ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.Google Scholar
Dyck, G. W. and Swierstra, E. E. 1987. Causes of piglet death from birth to weaning. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 67: 543–547.Google Scholar
England, D. C. 1986. Improving sow efficiency by management to enhance opportunity for nutritional intake by neonatal piglets. Journal of Animal Science 63: 1297–1306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
English, P. R. 1969. Mortality and variation in growth of piglets: a study of predisposing factors with particular reference to sow and piglet behaviour. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Aberdeen.Google Scholar
English, P. R. and Morrison, V. 1984. Causes and prevention of piglet mortality. Pig News and Information 5: 369–376.Google Scholar
English, P. R., Robb, C. M. and Dias, M. F. M. 1980. Evaluation of creep feeding using a highly digestible diet for litters weaned at 4 weeks of age. Animal Production 30: 496 (abstr.).Google Scholar
English, P. R. and Smith, W. J. 1975. Some causes of death in neonatal pigs. Veterinary Annual 15: 95–104.Google Scholar
English, P. R., Smith, W. J. and Maclean, A. 1982. The sow-improving her efficiency. 2nd ed. Farming Press, Ipswich.Google Scholar
English, P. R., Smith, W. J. and Robinson, T. W. 1984. Pig farmers guide. Scottish Agricultural College, publication no. 112.Google Scholar
English, P. R. and Wilkinson, V. 1982. Management of the sow and litter in late pregnancy and lactation in relation to piglet survival and growth. In Control of pig reproduction (ed. Cole, D. J. A. and Foxcroft, G. R.). Butterworths, London.Google Scholar
Fahmy, M. H. and Bernard, C. 1971. Causes of mortality in Yorkshire pigs from birth to 20 weeks of age. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 51: 351–359.Google Scholar
Fahy, V. A., Connaughton, I. D., Driesen, S. J. and Spicer, E. M. 1987. Neonatal diarrhoea update. In Pig production — proceedings no. 95, Post-Graduate Committee in Veterinary Science, University of Sydney.Google Scholar
Farmer, C., Houtz, S. K. and Hagen, D. R. 1987a. Estrone concentration in sow milk during and after parturition. Journal of Animal Science 64: 1086–1089.Google Scholar
Farmer, C., Kensinger, R. S. and Hagen, D. R. 1987b. Relationship of estrone and prolactin with growth and survival of piglets to 35 d. of age. Journal of Animal Science 65: 1034–1041.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flint, A. P. F., Ricketts, A. P. and Craig, V. A. 1979. The control of placental steroid synthesis at parturition in domestic animals. Animal Reproduction Science 2: 239–251.Google Scholar
Fraser, D. 1984. Some factors influencing the availability of colostrum to piglets. Animal Production 39: 115–123.Google Scholar
Fraser, D. 1990. Behavioural perspectives on piglet survival. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, suppl. no. 40, pp. 355–370.Google Scholar
Friend, T., O'Connor, L., Knabe, D. and Dellmeier, G. 1989. Preliminary trials of a sound-activated device to reduce crushing of piglets by sows. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 24: 23–29.Google Scholar
Glastonbury, J. R. W. 1976. A survey of preweaning mortality in the pig. Australian Veterinary Journal 52: 272–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gooneratne, A., Hartmann, P. E., McCauley, I. and Martin, C. E. 1979. Control of parturition in the sow using progesterone and prostaglandin. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences 32: 587–595.Google Scholar
Gunn, R. G. and Robinson, J. F. 1963. Lamb mortality in Scottish hill flocks. Animal Production 5: 67–76.Google Scholar
Gustafsson, B. 1983. Effects of sow housing systems in practical pig production. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 26: 1181–1185, 1193.Google Scholar
Hacker, R. R., Hazeleger, W., van Poppel, F. J. J., Osinga, A., Verstegen, M. W. A. and van de Wiel, D. F. M. 1979. Urinary oestrone concentration in relation to piglet viability, growth and mortality. Livestock Production Science 6: 313–318.Google Scholar
Hansen, K. E. and Curtis, S. E. 1980. Prepartal activity of sows in stall or pen. Journal of Animal Science 51: 456–460.Google Scholar
Hartsock, T. G. and Graves, H. B. 1976. Neonatal behaviour and nutrition-related mortality in domestic swine. Journal of Animal Science 42: 235–241.Google Scholar
Hendrix, W. F., Kelley, K. W., Gaskins, C. T. and Hinrichs, D. J. 1978. Porcine neonatal survival and serum gamma globulins. Journal of Animal Science 47: 1281–1286.Google Scholar
Holness, D. H. and Mandisodza, K. T. 1985. The influence of additional fat in the diet of sows before and after parturition on piglet viability and performance. Livestock Production Science 13: 191–198.Google Scholar
Hughes, P. E., Pearce, G. P. and Baguio, S. S. 1992. The effects of oestradiol treatment on activity, growth and survival in neonatal piglets. Animal Production 54: 299–304.Google Scholar
Hughes, P. E. and Varley, M. A. 1980. Reproduction in the pig. Butterworths, London.Google Scholar
Hutson, G. D. 1988. Do sows need straw for nest-building? Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 28: 187–194.Google Scholar
Hutson, G. D., Wilkinson, J. L. and Luxford, B. G. 1991. The response of lactating sows to tactile, visual and auditory stimuli associated with a model piglet. Applied Animal Behaviour Science In press.Google Scholar
Kelley, K. W., Blecha, F. and Regnier, J. A. 1982. Cold exposure and absorption of colostral immunoglobulins by neonatal piglets. Journal of Animal Science 55: 363–368.Google Scholar
King, G. J. and Wathes, D. C. 1989. Relaxin, progesterone and oestrogen profiles in sow plasma during natural and induced parturition. Animal Reproduction Science 20: 213–220.Google Scholar
Klobasa, F., Butler, J. E., Werhahn, E. and Habe, F. 1986. Maternal-neonatal immunoregulation in swine. II. Influence of multiparity on de novo immunoglobulin synthesis by piglets. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 11: 149–159.Google Scholar
Klobasa, F., Werhahn, E. and Butler, J. E. 1981. Regulation of humoral immunity in the piglet by immunoglobulins of maternal origin. Research in Veterinary Science 31: 195–206.Google Scholar
Lecce, J. G. and King, M. W. 1981. Nutrition and management of early-weaned pigs: diets for protecting rotavirus-exposed pigs weaned at 1 to 5 days of age. Journal of Animal Science 53: 677–682.Google Scholar
Le Dividich, J. and Noblet, J. 1983. Thermoregulation and energy metabolism in the neonatal pig. Biology of the Neonate 40: 167–174.Google Scholar
Lee, C. W. 1977. Effects of oxytocin and parasympathomimetic drugs on porcine stillbirths. Korean Journal of Veterinary Research 17: 9–12.Google Scholar
Leman, A. D., Knudson, C., Rodeffer, H. E. and Mueller, A. G. 1972. Reproductive performance of swine on 76 Illinois farms. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 161: 1248–1250.Google Scholar
MacBride, G. 1963. The ‘teat order’ and communication in young pigs. Animal Behaviour 11: 53–56.Google Scholar
MacPherson, R. M. and Jones, A. S. 1976. The effect of administration of glucose on survival of the neonatal pig. Animal Production 22: 153 (abstr.).Google Scholar
Meat and Livestock Commission. 1989. Commercial pig yearbook. MLC, Bletchley.Google Scholar
Mellor, D. J. and Cockburn, F. 1986. A comparison of energy metabolism in the newborn infant, piglet and lamb. Queensland Journal of Experimental Physiology 71: 361–379.Google Scholar
Mellor, D. J., Mackay, J. M. K. and Williams, J. T. 1972. Effects of oestrogen on activity and survival of lambs delivered by hysterectomy. Research in Veterinary Science 13: 399–401.Google Scholar
Milon, A., Aumaitre, A., Le Dividich, J., Franz, J. and Metzger, J. J. 1983. Influence of birth prematurity on colostrum composition and subsequent immunity of piglets. Annales de la Recherche Véterinaire 14: 533–540.Google Scholar
Morrison, V., English, P. R. and Lodge, G. A. 1983. The effect of alternative creep heating arrangements at two house temperatures on piglet lying behaviour and mortality in the neonatal period. Animal Production 36: 530–531. (abstr.).Google Scholar
Moser, B. D. and Lewis, A. J. 1981. Fat additions to sow diets — a review. Pig News and Information 2: 265–269.Google Scholar
Mount, L. E. 1968. The climatic physiology of the pig. Arnold, London.Google Scholar
Nielsen, N. C., Christensen, K., Bille, N. and Larsen, J. L. 1974. Preweaning mortality in pigs. 1. Herd investigations. Nordisk Veterinarmedicin 26: 137–150.Google Scholar
O'Grady, J. F. 1981. Energy and protein nutrition of the sow. In Recent advances in animal nutrition — 1980 (ed. Haresign, W.), pp. 121–131. Butterworths, London.Google Scholar
Petersen, V., Recen, B. and Vestergaard, K. 1990. Behaviour of sows and piglets during farrowing under freerange conditions. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 26: 169–179.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, J. E. 1981. Supplementary dietary fat for peripartal sows: a review. Journal of Animal Science 53: 107–117.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, J. E., Cornelius, S. G., Moser, R. L., Heeg, T. R., Hanke, H. E., Miller, K. P. and Hagen, G. D. 1986. Effects of oral doses of corn oil and other factors on preweaning survival and growth of piglets. Journal of Animal Science 62: 601–612.Google Scholar
Pomeroy, R. W. 1960. Infertility and neonatal mortality in the sow. III. Neonatal mortality and foetal development. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 54: 31–56.Google Scholar
Prime, R. W., Fahy, V. A., Ray, W., Cutler, R. S. and Spicer, E. G. 1987. On farm validation of research — lowering preweaning mortality rates in pigs. Report to Pig Research Council, Department of Primary Industries and Energy, Canberra.Google Scholar
Randall, G. C. B. 1971. The relationship of arterial blood pH and pCO2 to the viability of the newborn pig. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science 35: 141–146.Google Scholar
Randall, G. C. B. 1972. Observations on parturition in the sow. Veterinary Record 90: 178–186.Google Scholar
Randall, G. C. B. and Penny, R. H. C. 1967. Stillbirth in pigs: the possible role of anoxia. Veterinary Record 81: 359–361.Google Scholar
Randall, G. C. B. and Penny, R. H. C. 1970. Stillbirth in the pig: an analysis of the breeding records of five herds. British Veterinary Journal 126: 593–603.Google Scholar
Robertson, J. B., Laird, R., Hall, J. K. S., Forsyth, R. J., Thomson, J. M. and Walker-Love, J. 1966. A comparison of two indoor farrowing systems for sows. Animal Production 8: 171–178.Google Scholar
Sharpe, H. B. A. 1966. Pre-weaning mortality in a herd of Large White pigs. British Veterinary Journal 122: 99–111.Google Scholar
Sherwood, O. D., Wilson, M. E., Edgerton, L. A. and Chang, C. C. 1978. Serum relaxin concentrations in pigs with parturition delayed by progesterone administration. Endocrinology 102: 471–475.Google Scholar
Spicer, E. M., Driesen, S. J., Fahy, V. A. Horton, B. J., Sims, L. D., Jones, R. T. Cutler, R. S. and Prime, R. W. 1986. Causes of preweaning mortality on a large intensive piggery. Australian Veterinary Journal 63: 71–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sprecher, D. J., Leman, A. D. and Carlisle, S. 1975. Effects of parasympathomimetics on porcine stillbirth. American Journal of Veterinary Research 36: 1331–1333.Google Scholar
Sprecher, D. J., Leman, A. D., Dziuk, P. D., Cropper, M. and Dedecker, M. 1974. Causes and control of swine stillbirth. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 165: 698–701.Google Scholar
Stanton, H. C. and Carroll, J. K. 1974. Potential mechanisms responsible for prenatal and perinatal mortality or low viability of swine. Journal of Animal Science 38: 1037–1044.Google Scholar
Svendsen, J. and Andreasson, B. 1981. Investigations into the supplying of liquids to piglets and to weaned pigs: liquid consumption and production results. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Farm Buildings, Report 14.Google Scholar
Thacker, P. A. and Barber, E. M. 1987. Use of planned drafts in an attempt to reduce preweaning mortality in baby pigs. Canadian Agricultural Engineering 29: 197–200.Google Scholar
Titterington, R. W. and Fraser, D. 1976. The lying behaviour of sows and piglets during early lactation in relation to the position of the creep heater. Applied Animal Ethology 2: 47–53.Google Scholar
Van der Steen, H. A. M., Schaeffer, L. R., Jong, M. de and Groot, P. N. de. 1988. Aggressive behaviour of sows at parturition. Journal of Animal Science 66: 271–279.Google Scholar
Varley, M. A., Maitland, A. and Ross, L. N. 1986a. The performance of piglets weaned at birth or one day of age and the use of oral vaccines against E. coli antigens. Livestock Production Science 15: 83–95.Google Scholar
Varley, M. A., Maitland, A. and Towie, A. 1986b. Artificial rearing of piglets: the administration of two sources of immunoglobulins after birth. Animal Production 43: 121–126.Google Scholar
Varley, M. A., Wilkinson, R. G. and Maitland, A. 1987. Artificial rearing of baby piglets: the effect of colostrum on survival and plasma concentration of IgG. British Veterinary Journal 143: 369–378.Google Scholar
Veterinary Investigation Service. 1960. A survey of the incidence and causes of mortality in pigs. II. Findings at post mortem examination of pigs. Veterinary Record 72: 1240–1247.Google Scholar
Walker, N. 1977. The effects of induction of paturition in sows using an analogue of prostaglandin F2α . Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge. 89: 267–271.Google Scholar
Whitley, J. L. 1990. The endocrine control of the initiation of parturition and lactation in the sow. PhD. Thesis, University of Western Australia.Google Scholar
Whitely, J. L., Hartmann, P.E., Willcox, D. L., Bryant-Greenwood, G. D. and Greenwood, F. C. 1990. Initiation of parturition and lactation in the sow: effects of delaying parturition with medroxyprogesterone acetate. Journal of Endocrinology 124: 475–484.Google Scholar
Whitely, J. L., Willcox, D. L., Newton, J. A., Bryant-Greenwood, G. D. and Hartmann, P. E. 1984. Total and free plasma concentrations of progesterone, Cortisol and oestradiol-17β during pregnancy, parturition and early lactation in sows. Australian Journal of Biological Science 37: 267–276.Google Scholar
Whiting, R., Owen, B. D., Elliott, J. I. and Beames, R. M. 1983. Porcine immunoglobulin-fortified milk replacers for newborn low-birth-weight pigs. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 63: 993–996.Google Scholar
Wilson, M. E., Edgerton, L. A., Cromwell, G. L. and Stahly, T. S. 1981. Progesterone and estrogen concentrations in gilts with delayed parturition. Journal of Animal Science 52: 323–329.Google Scholar
Wilson, M. E., Edgerton, L. A. Stahly, T. S. and Cromwell, G. L. 1989. Effects of estrogen and prostaglandin on progesterone-delayed farrowing. Theriogenology 32: 577–583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, M. R. 1974. Immunologic development of the neonatal pig. Journal of Animal Science 38: 1018–1021.Google Scholar