Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-18T23:47:22.924Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mercury and lead during breast-feeding

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2007

José G. Dorea
José G. Dorea*
Affiliation:
Laboratório de Bioquímica Nutricional, Departamento de Nutrição, C.P. 04322, Universidade de Brasilia, 70919.970 Brasilia, Brazil
*
*Corresponding author: fax +55 61 368 5853, Email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Hg and Pb are of public health concern due to their toxic effects on vulnerable fetuses, persistence in pregnant and breast-feeding mothers, and widespread occurrence in the environment. To diminish maternal and infant exposure to Hg and Pb, it is necessary to establish guidelines based on an understanding of the environmental occurrence of these metals and the manner in which they reach the developing human organism. In the present review, environmental exposure, acquisition and storage of these metals via maternal–infant interaction are systematically presented. Though Hg and Pb are dispersed throughout the environment, the risk of exposure to infants is primarily influenced by maternal dietary habits, metal speciation and interaction with nutritional status. Hg and Pb possess similar adverse effects on the central nervous system, but they have environmental and metabolic differences that modulate their toxicity and neurobehavioural outcome in infant exposure during fetal development. Hg is mainly found in protein matrices of animal flesh (especially fish and shellfish), whereas Pb is mainly found in osseous structures. The potential of maternal acquisition is higher and lasts longer for Pb than for Hg. Pb stored in bone has a longer half-life than monomethyl-mercury acquired from fish. Both metals appear in breast milk as a fraction of the levels found in maternal blood supplied to the fetus during gestation. Habitual diets consumed by lactating mothers pose no health hazard to breast-fed infants. Instead, cows' milk-based formulas pose a greater risk of infant exposure to neurotoxic substances.

Keywords

MercuryLeadPregnancyBreast milkLactation
Type
Review article
Information
British Journal of Nutrition , Volume 92 , Issue 1 , July 2004 , pp. 21 - 40
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 2004

References

1Abu-Ghazaleh, AA, Schingoethe, DJ, Hippen, AR & Whitlock, LAFeeding fish meal and extruded soybeans enhances the conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content of milk. J Dairy Sci 2002 85 624–631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2Abusamra, YIHTrace elements and protein in human milk. MSc Thesis University of KhartoumSudan (cited in Tripathiet al.. 1999) 1995.Google Scholar
3Aizpurua, ICM, Tenuta, A, Sakuma, AM & Zenebon, OUse of cysteine to remove mercury from shark muscle. Int J Food Sci Technol 1997 32 333–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4Akayezu, JM, Hansen, WP, Otterby, DE, Crooker, BA & Marx, GDYield response of lactating Holstein dairy cows to dietary fish meal and bone meal. J Dairy Sci 1997 80 2950–2963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5Albanus, L, Frankenberg, L, Grant, C, von Haartman, U, Jernelov, A, Nordberg, G, Rydalv, M, Schutz, A & Skerfving, SToxicity for cats of methylmercury in contaminated fish from Swedish lakes and of methylmercury hydroxide added to fish. Environ Res 1972 5 425–442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6Al-Saleh, I, Shinwari, N & Mashhour, AHeavy metal concentrations in the breast milk of Saudi women. Biol Trace Elem Res 2003 96 21–37CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7Altmann, P, Maruna, RF, Maruna, H, Michalica, W & Wagner, GLead detoxication effect of a combined calcium phosphate and ascorbic acid therapy in pregnant women with increased lead burden (in German). Wien Med Wochenschr 1981 131 311–314.Google Scholar
8Anderson, JW, Johnstone, BM & Remley, DTBreast-feeding and cognitive development: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 1999 70 525–535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9Angelsen, NK, Vik, T, Jacobsen, G & Bakketeig, LSBreast feeding and cognitive development at age 1 and 5 years. Arch Dis Child 2001 85 183–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10Annest, JL, Pirkle, JL, Makuc, D, Neese, JW, Bayse, DD & Kowar, MGChronological trend in blood lead levels between 1976 and 1980. New Engl J Med 1983 308 1373–1377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11Armbruster, G, Gutenmann, WH & Lisk, DJThe effects of 6 methods of cooking on residues of mercury in striped bass. Nutr Rep Int 1988 37 123–126Google Scholar
12Baars, AJ, van Beek, H & Visser, IJLead intoxication in cattle: a case report. Food Addit Contam 1992 9 357–364CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13Bakir, F, Damluji, S & Amin-Zair, HMethylmercury poisoning in Iraq. An interuniversity report. Science 1973 181 230–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14Baluja, G, Hernandez, LM, Gonzalez, MJ & Rico, MCPresence of organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and mercury in Spanish human milk samples. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1982 28 573–577CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15Barbosa, AC & Dorea, JGIndices of mercury contamination during breast feeding in the Amazon Basin. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 1998 6 71–79CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16Barbosa, AC, Silva, SRL & Dorea, JGConcentration of mercury in hair of indigenous mothers and infants from the Amazon Basin. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1998 34 100–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17Barbosa, AC, Souza, J, Dorea, JG, Jardim, WF & Fadini, OSMercury biomagnification in a tropical black water, Rio Negro, Brazil. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 2003 45 235–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18Barnett, NW, Chen, LS & Kirkbright, GFDetermination of trace concentrations of lead and nickel in free-dried human milk by atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively-coupled plasma emission spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 1983 149 115–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19Baum, CR & Shannon, MWLead in breast milk. Pediatrics 1996 97 932.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20Baum, CR & Shannon, MWThe lead concentration of reconstituted infant formula. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1997 35 371–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21Belgaied, JERelease of heavy metals from Tunisian traditional earthenware. Food Chem Toxicol 2003 41 95–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22Belles-Isles, M, Ayotte, P, Dewailly, E, Weber, JP & Roy, RCord blood lymphocyte functions in newborns from a remote maritime population exposed to organochlorines and methylmercury. J Toxicol Environ Health 2002 65 165–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23Berlin, CMJr, Kacew, S, Lawrence, R, LaKind, JS & Campbell, RCriteria for chemical selection for programs on human milk surveillance and research for environmental chemicals. J Toxicol Environ Health 2002 65 1839–1851.Google ScholarPubMed
24Bjerregaard, P & Hansen, JCEffects of smoking and marine diet on birthweight in Greenland. Arctic Med Res 1996 55 156–164.Google ScholarPubMed
25Blake, KC & Mann, MEffect of calcium and phosphorus on the gastrointestinal absorption of 203 Pb in man. Environ Res 1983 30 188–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26Brito, JAA, McNeill, FF, Stronach, I, Webber, CE, Wells, S, Richard, N & Chettle, RLongitudinal changes in bone lead concentration: implications for modelling of human bone lead metabolism. J Environ Monit 2001 3 343–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27Burger, J, Dixon, C, Boring, CS & Gochfeld, MEffect of deep-frying fish on risk from mercury. J Toxicol Environ Health 2003 66 817–828.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28Bushnell, PJ & DeLuca, HFThe effects of lactose on the absorption and retention of dietary lead. J Nutr 1983 113 365–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29Cancela, L, Le Boulch, N & Miravet, LRelationship between the vitamin D content of maternal milk and the vitamin D status of nursing women and breast-fed infants. J Endocrinol 1986 110 43–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30Casey, CEThe content of some trace elements in infant milk foods and supplements available in New Zealand. N Z Med J 1977 85 275–278.Google ScholarPubMed
31Chamberlain, ACPrediction of response of blood lead to airborne and dietary lead from volunteer experiments with lead isotopes. Proc R Soc Lond 1985 224 149–182.Google ScholarPubMed
32Chan, GM, Roland, N, Slater, P, Hollis, J & Thomas, MRDecreased bone mineral status in lactating adolescent mothers. J Pediatr 1982 101 767–770.Google ScholarPubMed
33Chapman, L & Chan, HMThe influence of nutrition on methyl mercury intoxication. Environ Health Perspect 2000 108 29–56.Google ScholarPubMed
34Chatranon, W, Chavalittamrong, B, Kritalugsana, S & Pringsulaka, PLead concentrations in breast milk at various stages of lactation. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1978 9 420–422.Google ScholarPubMed
35Chicourel, EL, Sakuma, AM, Zenebon, O & Tenuta, AInefficacy of cooking methods on mercury reduction from shark. Arch Latinoam Nutr 2001 51 288–292.Google ScholarPubMed
36Chilliard, Y, Ferlay, A & Doreau, MEffect of different types of forages, animal fat or marine oils in cow's diet on milk fat secretion and composition, especially conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Livest Prod Sci 2000 70 31–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37Chodorowski, Z, Sein Anand, J, Gajda, B, Ciechanowicz, R & Wnuk, KCriminal contamination by metallic mercury of cow's silage (in Polish). Przegl Lek 2001 58 376–377.Google Scholar
38Choy, CM, Lam, CW, Cheung, LT, Briton-Jones, CM, Cheung, LP & Haines, CJInfertility, blood mercury concentrations and dietary seafood consumption: a case-control study. BJOG 2002 109 1121–1125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39Clarkson, TWEnvironmental contaminants in the food chain. Am J Clin Nutr 1995 61 682S–686S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40Clarkson, TWThe three modern faces of mercury. Environ Health Perspect 2002 110 Suppl. 111–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
41Clarkson, TW & Strain, JJNutritional factors may modify the toxic action of methyl mercury in fish-eating populations. J Nutr 2003 133 Suppl. 1) 1539S–1543S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42Cordier, S, Garel, M, Mandereau, L, Morcel, H, Doineau, P, Gosme-Seguret, S, Josse, D, White, R & Amiel-Tison, CNeurodevelopmental investigations among methylmercury-exposed children in French Guiana. Environ Res 2002 89 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43Counter, SA, Buchanan, LH, Ortega, F, Amarasiriwardena, C & Hu, HEnvironmental lead contamination and pediatric lead intoxication in an Andean Ecuadorian village. Int J Occup Environ Health 2000 6 169–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44Dabeka, RW, Karpinski, KF, McKenzie, AD & Bajdik, CDSurvey of lead, cadmium and fluoride in human milk and correlation of levels with environmental and food factors. Food Chem Toxicol 1986 24 913–921.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45Dagnelie, PC, van Staveren, WA, Roos, AH, Tuinstra, LG & Burema, JNutrients and contaminants in human milk from mothers on macrobiotic and omnivorous diets. Eur J Clin Nutr 1992 46 355–366.Google ScholarPubMed
46Das, UNCan perinatal supplementation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids prevent diabetes mellitus?. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003 57 218–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47Davis, TA, Nguyen, HV, Garcia-Bravo, R, Fiorotto, ML, Jackson, EM & Reeds, PJAmino acid composition of the milk of some mammalian species changes with stage of lactation. Br J Nutr 1994 72 845–853.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48Dawodu, A, Agarwal, M, Hossain, M, Kochiyil, J & Zayed, RHypovitaminosis D and vitamin D deficiency in exclusively breast-feeding infants and their mothers in summer: a justification for vitamin D supplementation of breast-feeding infants. J Pediatr 2003 142 169–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
49Dickman, MD, Leung, CK & Leong, MKHong Kong male subfertility links to mercury in human hair and fish. Sci Total Environ 1998 214 165–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50Dillon, HK, Wilson, DJ & Schaffner, WLead concentrations in human milk. Am J Dis Child 1974 128 491–492.Google ScholarPubMed
51Ding, HC, Lui, HJ, Sheu, YL & Chang, TCSurvey of beta-lactam antibiotics and heavy metals in infant milk powder and human milk. J Food Drug Anal 1993 1 265–271.Google Scholar
52Dorea, JGCalcium and phosphorus in human milk. Nutr Res 1999 19 709–739.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53Dorea, JGSelenium and breast-feeding. Br J Nutr 2002 88 443–461.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54Dorea, JGFish are central in the diet of the Amazonian riparians: should we worry about their mercury concentrations?. Environ Res 2003 92 232–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55Dorea, JGVegetarian diets and exposure to organochlorine pollutants, lead and mercury. Am J Clin Nutr 2004(In the Press).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56Dorea, JG, Cabral, MS, Wright, MGM & Rodrigues, KHOsmolalities of bottle- and breast-milk fed to poor urban Brazilian infants Ann Trop Paediatr 1988 8 181–183CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57Dorea, JG, Horner, MR & Campanate, MLLongitudinal study of major milk constituents from two socioeconomic groups of mothers in Brazil. Nutr Rep Int 1984 29 699–710.Google Scholar
58Dorea, JG & Myazaki, ECalcium and phosphorus in milk of Brazilian mothers using oral contraceptives. J Am Coll Nutr 1998 17 642–646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59Drasch, G, Aigner, S, Roider, G, Staiger, F & Lipowsky, GMercury in human colostrum and early breast milk. Its dependence on dental amalgam and other factors. J Trace Elem Med Biol 1998 12 23–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60Drexler, H & Schaller, KHThe mercury concentration in breast milk resulting from amalgam fillings and dietary habits. Environ Res 1998 77 124–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61Ducoffre, G, Claeys, F & Braux, PLowering trends of blood lead levels in Belgium since 1978. Environ Res 1980 51 25–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
62Durrand, SF & Ward, NIMulti-elemental analysis of human milk by inductively coupled plasma-source mass spectrometry: implications for infant health. J Micronutr Anal 1989 5 111–126.Google Scholar
63Easton, MDL, Luszniak, D & Von der Geest, EPreliminary examination of contaminant loadings in farmed salmon, wild salmon and commercial salmon feed. Chemosphere 2002 46, 1053–1074.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64Farias, P, Borja-Aburto, VH, Rios, C, Hertz-Picciotto, I, Rojas-Lopez, M & Chavez-Ayala, RBlood lead levels in pregnant women of high and low socioeconomic status in Mexico City. Environ Health Perspect 1996 104, 1070–1074.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65Finley, DA, Lonnerdal, B, Dewey, KG & Grivetti, LEInorganic constituents of breast milk from vegetarian and nonvegetarian women: relationships with each other and with organic constituents. J Nutr 1985 115, 772–781.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66Fong, K-Y, Liu, F-H, Zheng, Y-Q & Bai, W-HThe effect on fetus due to lead exposure of women. Zhonghua Lao Dong Wei Sheng Zhi Ye Bing Za Zhi 1988 6, 265–268(cited by Li et al. 2000).Google Scholar
67Friel, JK, Andrews, WL, Jackson, SE, Longerich, HP, Mercer, C, McDonald, A, Dawson, B & Sutradhar, BElemental composition of human milk from mothers of premature and full-term infants during the first 3 months of lactation. Biol Trace Elem Res 1999 67, 225–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68Frkovic, A, Kras, M & Alebic-Juretic, ALead and cadmium content in human milk from the Northern Adriatic area of Croatia. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1997 58, 16–21.Google ScholarPubMed
69Fujita, M & Takabatake, EMercury levels in human maternal and neonatal blood, hair and milk. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1977 18, 205–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70Galster, WAMercury in Alaskan Eskimo mothers and infants. Environ Health Perspect 1976 15, 135–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71Gammon, MD, Wolff, MS & Neugut, AIOrganochlorine compound levels in blood. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Preven 2002 11, 686–697.Google ScholarPubMed
72Garg, AN, Weginwar, RG & Chutke, NLA comparative study of minor and trace elements in human, animal, and commercial milk samples by neutral activation analysis. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 1993 172, 125–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
73Garnero, P, Sornay-Rendu, E & Delmas, PDDecreased bone turnover in oral contraceptive users. Bone 1995 16, 499–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74Goldsmith, NF & Johnston, JOBone mineral: effects of oral contraceptives, pregnancy and lactation. J Bone Surg 1975 57, 657–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75Grandjean, P, Budtz-Jorgensen, E, Steuerwald, U, Heinzow, B, Needham, LL, Jorgensen, PJ & Weihe, PAttenuated growth of breast-fed children exposed to increased concentrations of methylmercury and polychlorinated biphenyls. FASEB J 2003 17, 699–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76Grandjean, P, Weihe, P, Needham, LL, Burse, VW, Patterson, DG, Jr Sampson, EJ, Jorgensen, PJ & Vahter, M (1995 a) Relation of a seafood diet to mercury, selenium, arsenic, and polychlorinated biphenyl and other organochlorine concentrations in human milk. Environ Res 71, 29–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77Grandjean, P, Weihe, P & White, RFMilestone development in infants exposed to methylmercury from human milk. Neurotoxicology 1995 16, 27–33.Google ScholarPubMed
78Greenwood, MR, Clarkson, TW, Doherty, RA, Gates, AH, Amin-Zaki, L, Elhassani, S & Majeed, MABlood clearance half-times in lactating and nonlactating members of a population exposed to methylmercury. Environ Res 1978 16, 48–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79Guallar, E, Sanz-Gallardo, MI & van't Veer, PMercury, fish oils, and the risk of myocardial infarction. New Engl J Med 2002 347, 1747–1754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80Guidi, B, Ronchi, S & Ori, ELead concentrations in breast milk of women living in urban areas compared with women living in rural areas (in Italian). Pediatr Med Chir 1992 14, 611–616.Google Scholar
81Gulati, SK, McGrath, S, Wynn, PC & Scott, TWPreliminary results on the relative incorporation of docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids into cows milk from two types of rumen protected fish oil. Int Dairy J 2003 13, 339–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82Gulson, BL, Jameson, CW, Mahaffey, KR, Mizon, KJ, Patison, N, Law, AJ, Korsch, MJ & Salter, MARelationships of lead in breast milk to lead in blood, urine, and diet of the infant and mother. Environ Health Perspect 1998 106, 667–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83Gulson, BL, Mahaffey, KR, Vidal, M, Jameson, CW, Law, AJ, Mizon, KJ, Smith, AJ & Korsch, MJDietary lead intakes for mother/child pairs and relevance to pharmacokinetic models. Environ Health Perspect 1997 105, 1334–1342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84Gulson, BL, Mizon, KJ, Korsch, MJ, Mahaffey, KR & Taylor, AJDietary intakes of selected elements from longitudinal 6?d duplicate diets for pregnant and nonpregnant subjects and elemental concentrations of breast milk and infant formula. Environ Res 2001 87, 160–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
85Gulson, BL, Mizon, KJ, Korsch, MJ, Palmer, JM & Donnelly, JBMobilization of lead from human bone tissue during pregnancy and lactation: a summary of long-term research. Sci Total Environ 2003 303, 79–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86Gundacker, C, Pietschnig, B, Wittmann, KJ & Lischka, AHuman milk mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) levels in Vienna. Adv Exp Med Biol 2000 478, 387–388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87Gundacker, C, Pietschnig, B, Wittmann, KJ, Lischka, A, Salzer, H, Hohenauer, L & Schuster, ELead and mercury in breast milk. Pediatrics 2002 110, 873–878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88Hallen, IP, Jorhem, L, Lagerkvist, BJ & Oskarsson, ALead and cadmium levels in human milk and blood. Sci Total Environ 1995 166, 149–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89Hanning, RM, Sandhu, R, MacMillan, A, Moss, L, Tsuji, LJS & Nieboer, EImpact on blood Pb levels of maternal and early infant feeding practices of First Nation Cree in the Mushkegowuk Territory of northern Ontario. J Environ Monit 2003 5, 241–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90Harada, M 1968. Minamata Report. Japan, Kumamoto University. (cited in Fujita & Takabatake, 1977).Google Scholar
91Haschke, F & Steffan, ILead intake with food of young infants in the years 1980/81 (in German). Wien Klin Wochenschr 1981 93, 613–616.Google Scholar
92Heard, MJ & Chamberlain, ACEffect of minerals and food on uptake of lead from the gastrointestinal tract in humans. Hum Toxicol 1982 1, 411–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
93Heard, MJ & Chamberlain, ACUptake of Pb by human skeleton and comparative metabolism of Pb and alkaline earth elements. Health Physics 1984 47, 857–865.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
94Hernandez-Avila, M, Gonzalez-Cossio, T, Palazuelos, E, Romieu, I, Aro, A, Fishbein, E, Peterson, KE & Hu, HDietary and environmental determinants of blood and bone lead levels in lactating postpartum women living in Mexico City. Environ Health Perspect 1996 104, 1076–1082.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
95Hillman, LSMineral and vitamin D adequacy in infants fed human milk or formula between 6 and 12 months of age. J Pediatr 1990 117, S134–S142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96Huat, LH, Zakariya, D & Eng, KHLead concentrations in breast milk of Malaysian urban and rural mothers. Arch Environ Health 1983 38, 205–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
97Hurgoiu, V & Caseanu, EMineral composition of the milk of mothers of premature infants during early lactation. Pediatrie 1986 41, 469–473.Google ScholarPubMed
98Iarushkin, VIuHeavy metals in the mother-newborn infant biological system in the technology-related biogeochemical environment (in Russian). Gig Sanit 1992 5–6, 13–15.Google Scholar
99Innis, SM & Elias, SLIntakes of essential n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among pregnant Canadian women. Am J Clin Nutr 2003 77, 473–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
100Jacobson, JL & Jacobson, SWAssociation of prenatal exposure to an environmental contaminant with intellectual function in childhood. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2002 40, 467–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
101Jones, DWExposure or absorption and the crucial question of limits for mercury. J Can Dent Assoc 1999 65, 42–46.Google ScholarPubMed
102Jorhem, L, Slorach, S, Sundstrom, B & Ohlin, BLead, cadmium, arsenic and mercury in meat, liver and kidney of Swedish pigs and cattle in 1984–88. Food Addit Contam 1991 8, 201–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103Juszkiewicz, T, Szprengier, T & Radomanski, TMercury content of human milk (in Polish). Pol Tyg Lek 1975 30, 365–366.Google Scholar
104Kalkwarf, HJHormonal and dietary regulation of changes in bone density during lactation and after weaning in women. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 1999 4, 319–329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105Kim, M, Kim, C & Song, IAnalysis of lead in 55 brands of dietary calcium supplements by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry after microwave digestion. Food Addit Contam 2003 20, 149–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
106Kirksey, A, Ernst, JA, Roepke, JL & Tsai, TLInfluence of mineral intake and use of oral contraceptives before pregnancy on the mineral content of human colostrum and of more mature milk. Am J Clin Nutr 1979 32, 30–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107Kitai, E, Blum, M & Kaplan, BThe bone sparing effect of oral contraceptive use in non-smoking women. Clin Exp Obstetr Gynecol 1992 19, 30–33.Google ScholarPubMed
108Klemann, D, Weinhold, J, Strubelt, O, Pentz, R, Jungblut, JR & Klink, FEffects of amalgam fillings on the mercury concentrations in amniotic fluid and breast milk (in German). Dtsch Zahnarztl Z 1990 45, 142–145.Google Scholar
109Klopov, VPLevels of heavy metals in women residing in the Russian Arctic. Int J Circumpolar Health 1998 57, Suppl. 1 582–585.Google ScholarPubMed
110Kovar, IZ, Strehlow, CD, Richmond, J & Thompson, MGPerinatal lead and cadmium burden in a British urban population. Arch Dis Child 1984 59, 36–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111Krachler, M, Li, FS, Rossipal, E & Irgolic, KJChanges in the concentrations of trace elements in human milk during lactation. J Trace Elem Med Biol 1998 12, 159–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
112Krachler, M, Rossipal, E & Irgolic, KJTrace elements in formulas based on cow and soy milk and in Austrian cow milk determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Biol Trace Elem Res 1998 65, 53–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113Krelowska-Kulas, MLead, cadmium, iron, copper and zinc in fresh milk from the selected areas of the Cracow region. Nahrung 1990 34, 213–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
114Kulkybaev, GA, Diusembin, KhD & Konkabaeva, AEContents of cadmium, lead, copper in blood and breast milk of mothers living in a region of ecological tension (as exemplified by cities of Balkhash and Karaganda) (in Russian). Fiziol Cheloveka 2002 28, 140–141.Google Scholar
115Lanting, CI, Fidler, V, Huisman, M, Touwen, BC & Boersma, ERNeurological differences between 9-year-old children fed breast-milk or formula-milk as babies. Lancet 1994 344, 1319–1322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116Larsson, B, Slorach, SA, Hagman, U & Hofvander, YWHO collaborative breast feeding study. II Levels of lead and cadmium in Swedish human milk 1978–1979. Acta Paediatr Scand 1981 70, 281–284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117Lechner, W, Battista, HJ & Dienstl, FThe lead content of human milk in high and low traffic areas of Tirol ( in German). Gynakol Rundsch 1980 20, Suppl. 2 268–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
118Li, PJ, Sheng, YZ, Wang, QY, Gu, LY & Wang, YLTransfer of lead via placenta and breast milk in humans. Biomed Environ Sci 2000 13, 85–89.Google Scholar
119Lindow, SW, Knight, R, Batty, J & Haswell, SJMaternal and neonatal hair mercury concentrations: the effect of dental amalgam. BJOG 2003 110, 287–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
120Lucas, A, Lockton, S & Davies, PSRandomised trial of a ready-to-feed compared with powdered formula. Arch Dis Child 1992 67, 935–939.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
121Lutter, CK, Iyengar, V, Barnes, R, Amarasiriwardena, D, Kotrebai, M & Sharmanova, TConcentrations of toxic metals and radionuclides in Kazakstani breastmilk. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Harmonization of Health Related Environmental Measurements Using Nuclear and Isotopic Techniques in Hyderabad, India, ViennaIAEA 1997Google Scholar
122Lutz, E, Lind, B, Herin, P, Krakau, I, Bui, TH & Vahter, MConcentrations of mercury, cadmium and lead in brain and kidney of second trimester fetuses and infants. J Trace Elem Med Biol 1996 10, 61–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
123Mansour, MM, Dyer, NC, Hoffman, LH, Schulert, AR & Brill, ABMaternal-fetal transfer of organic and inorganic mercury via placenta and milk. Environ Res 1973 6, 479–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
124Manton, WI, Angle, CR, Stanek, KL, Kuntzelman, D, Reese, YR & Kuehnemann, TJRelease of lead from bone in pregnancy and lactation. Environ Res 2003 92, 139–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
125Marcal, WS, Gaste, L, Liboni, M, Pardo, PE, Nascimento, MR & Hisasi, CSConcentration of lead in mineral salt mixtures used as supplements in cattle food. Exp Toxicol Pathol 2001 53, 7–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
126Martino, FAR & Sanchez, MLF, Sanz-Medel, AThe potential of double focusing-ICP-MS for studying elemental distribution patterns in whole milk, skimmed milk and milk whey of different milks. Anal Chim Acta 2001 442, 191–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
127Massey, LKDietary animal and plant protein and human bone health: a whole foods approach. J Nutr 2003 133, 862S–865S.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
128Mata, L, Sanchez, L & Calvo, MInteraction of mercury with human and bovine milk proteins. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 1997 61, 1641–1645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
129Mendola, P, Selevan, SG, Gutter, S & Rice, DEnvironmental factors associated with a spectrum of neurodevelopmental deficits. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2002 8, 188–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
130Moline, J, Lopez Carrillo, L, Torres Sanchez, L, Godbold, J & Todd, ALactation and lead body burden turnover: a pilot study in Mexico. J Occup Environ Med 2000 42, 1070–1075.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
131Moore, MR, Goldberg, A, Pocock, SJ, Meredith, A, Stewart, IM, MacAnespie, H, Lees, R & Low, ASome studies of maternal and infant lead exposure in Glasgow. Scott Med J 1982 27, 113–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
132Morgan, JN, Berry, MR & Graves, RLEffects of commonly used cooking practices on total mercury concentration in fish and their impact on exposure assessments. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1997 7, 119–133.Google ScholarPubMed
133Morris, MC, Evans, DA, Bienias, JL, Tangney, CC, Bennett, DA, Wilson, RS, Aggarwal, N & Schneider, JConsumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003 60, 940–946.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
134Mortensen, EL, Michaelsen, KF, Sanders, SA & Reinisch, JMThe association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence. JAMA 2002 287, 2365–2371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
135Moser, PB, Reynolds, RD, Acharya, S, Howard, MP & Andon, MBCalcium and magnesium dietary intakes and plasma and milk concentrations of Nepalese lactating women. Am J Clin Nutr 1988 47, 735–739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
136Muckle, G, Ayotte, P, Dewailly, E, Jacobson, SW & Jacobson, JLPrenatal exposure of the Northern Quebec Inuit infants to environmental contaminants. Environ Health Perspect 2001 109, 1291–1299.Google ScholarPubMed
137Muller, J, Gotze, S, Negretti, de & Bratter, Vet al.. 1986 Quelcksilber-, Magnesium- und Zinkehalte in der Frauenmilkch, im Blutserum und Fettgewebe der Mutter (Mercury, magnesium and zinc stability in breast milk, blood serum and fat tissue in mothers). In In ZEBS-Hefte 1/1986, Bundesgesundheitsamt, Berlin, (Cited in Somogyi & Beck, 1993)Google Scholar
138Mushak, PResponse: keeping abreast of new science. Environ Health Perspect 1999 107, A59–A60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
139Myers, GJ, Davidson, PW, Cox, C, Shamlaye, C, Cernichiari, AE & Clarkson, TWTwenty-seven years studying the human neurotoxicity of methylmercury exposure. Environ Res 2000 83, 275–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
140Namihira, DSaldivar, LPustilnik, NCarreon, GJSalinas, MELead in human blood and milk from nursing women living near a smelter in Mexico City J Toxicol Environ Health 1993 38 225 – 232CrossRefGoogle Scholar
141Nashashibi, NCardamakis, EBolbos, GTzingounis, VInvestigation of kinetic of lead during pregnancy and lactation Gynecol Obstetr Invest 1999 48 158 – 162CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
142Navarrete-Espinosa, JSanin-Aguirre, LHEscandon-Romero, CBenitez-Martinez, GOlaiz-Fernandez, GHernandez-Avila, MLead blood levels in mothers and newborn infants covered by the Mexican Institute of Social Security (in Spanish) Salud Publica Mex 2000 42 391 – 396CrossRefGoogle Scholar
143Needleman, HLBellinger, DThe health effects of low level exposure to lead Ann Rev Public Health 1991 12 111 – 140CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
144Negretti de Bratter, VBratter, PMuller, JWeigert, PIngestion of mercury during early infancy Trace Elements – Analytical Chemistry in Medicine and Biology (Bratter, PSchramel, P) BerlinWalter de Gruyter & Co 1987 4 151 – 158Google Scholar
145Niessen, KHToxicologic status in infant and child nutrition (in German) Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 1986 134 403 – 408Google Scholar
146Nashashibi, KDock, LVahter, MTzingounis, VTransplacental and lactational exposure to mercury in hamster pups after maternal administration of methyl mercury in late gestation Pharmacol Toxicol 1995 77 130 – 135Google Scholar
147Nunes-Junior, GPSotério, NMFPossible mercury intoxication of newborns via breast milk Front Fetal Health 2000 2 18 – 20Google Scholar
148Oddy, WHKendall, GEBlair, EDe Klerk, NHStanley, FJLandau, LISilburn, SZubrick, SBreast feeding and cognitive development in childhood: a prospective birth cohort study Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2003 17 81 – 90CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
149Oken, EKleinman, KPBerland, WESimon, SRRich-Edwards, JWGillman, MWDecline in fish consumption among pregnant women after a national mercury advisory Obstetr Gynecol 2003 102 346 – 351Google ScholarPubMed
150Oliveira, SAro, ASparrow, DHu, HSeason modifies the relationship between bone and blood lead levels: the normative aging study Arch Environ Health 2002 57 466 – 472CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
151Ong, CNPhoon, WOLaw, HYTye, CYLim, HHConcentrations of lead in maternal blood, cord blood, and breast milk Arch Dis Child 1985 60 756 – 759CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
152Oskarsson, APalminger-Hallen, ISundberg, JExposure to toxic elements via breast milk Analyst 1995 120 765 – 770CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
153Oskarsson, ASchultz, ASkerfving, SHallen, IPOhlin, BLagerkvist, BJTotal and inorganic mercury in breast milk in relation to fish consumption and amalgam in lactating women Arch Environ Health 1996 51 234 – 241CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
154Paccagnella, BRiolfatti, MTotal mercury levels in human milk from Italian mothers having not been particularly exposed to methyl-mercury (in Italian) Ann Ig 1989 1 661 – 671Google Scholar
155Paine, BJMakrides, MGibson, RADuration of breast-feeding and Bayley's mental developmental index at 1 year of age J Paediatr Child Health 1999 35 82 – 85CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
156Palminger-Hallen, IOskarsson, APalminger-Hallen I Oskarsson A (1995) Bioavailability of lead from various milk diets studied in a suckling rat model Biometals 1995 8 231 – 236Google Scholar
157Passos, CJMergler, DGaspar, EMorais, SLucotte, MLarribe, FDavidson, Rde Grosbois, SEating tropical fruit reduces mercury exposure from fish consumption in the Brazilian Amazon Environ Res 2003 93 123 – 130CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
158Peraza, MAAyala-Fierro, FBarber, DSCasarez, ERael, LTEffects of micronutrients on metal toxicity Environ Health Perspect 1998 106Suppl. 1203 – 216Google ScholarPubMed
159Perrone, LDi Palma, LDi Toro, RGialanella, GMoro, RInteraction of trace elements in a longitudinal study of human milk from full-term and preterm mothers Biol Trace Elem Res 1994 41 321 – 330CrossRefGoogle Scholar
160Pires, JBMiekeley, NDonangelo, CMCalcium supplementation during lactation blunts erythrocyte lead levels and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase zinc-reactivation in women non-exposed to lead and with marginal calcium intakes Toxicology 2002 175 247 – 255CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
161Pitkin, RMBahns, JAFiler, LJJr Reynolds, WAMercury in human maternal and cord blood, placenta, and milk Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1976 151 565 – 567CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
162Plockinger, BDadak, CMeisinger, VLead, mercury and cadmium in newborn infants and their mothers (in German) Z Geburtshilfe Perinatol 1993 197 104 – 107Google Scholar
163Prentice, AYan, LJarjou, LMADibba, BLaskey, MAStirling, DMFairweather-Tait, SVitamin D status does not influence the breast-milk calcium concentration of lactating mothers accustomed to a low calcium intake Acta Paediatr 1997 86 1006 – 1008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
164Rabinowitz, M, Leviton, A & Needleman, HLead in milk and infant blood: a dose-response model. Arch Environ Health 1985 40, 283–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
165Rabinowitz, MB, Wetherill, GW & Kopple, JDKinetic analysis of lead metabolism in healthy humans. J Clin Invest 1976 58, 260–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
166Ramirez, GB, Cruz, MC, Pagulayan, O, Ostrea, E & Dalisay, CThe Tagum study I: analysis and clinical correlates of mercury in maternal and cord blood, breast milk, meconium, and infants' hair. Pediatrics 2000 106, 774–781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
167Rica, CC & Kirkbright, GFDetermination of trace concentrations of lead and nickel in human milk by electrothermal atomisation atomic absorption spectrophotometry and inductively-coupled plasma emission spectroscopy. Sci Total Environ 1982 22, 193–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
168Richmond, J, Strehlow, CD & Chalkley, SRDietary intake of Al, Ca, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn in infants. Brit J Biomed Sci 1993 50, 178–186.Google ScholarPubMed
169Risher, JF, De Rosa, CT, Murray, HE & Jones, DEJoint PCB-methylmercury exposures and neurobehavioral outcomes. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 2003 9, 1003–1010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
170Rockway, SW, Weber, CW, Lei, KY & Kemberling, SRLead concentrations of milk, blood, and hair in lactating women. Int Arch Environ Health 1984 53, 181–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
171Rocquelin, G, Tapsoba, S, Mbemba, F, Gallon, G & Picq, CLipid content and fatty acid composition in foods commonly consumed by nursing Congolese women: incidences on their essential fatty acid intakes and breast milk fatty acids. Int J Food Sci Nutr 1998 49, 343–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
172Rodriguez Rodriguez, EM, Delgado Uretra, E & Diaz Romer, CConcentrations of cadmium and lead in different types of milk. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 1999 208, 162–168.Google Scholar
173Roh, JK, Bradley, RL, Richardson, T Jr & Weckel, KGDistribution and removal of added mercury in milk. J Dairy Sci 1975 58, 1782–1788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
174Rossi, DT & Wright, DSAnalytical considerations for trace determinations of drugs in breast milk. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1997 15, 495–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
175Rothenberg, SJ, Kondrashov, V, Manalo, M, Manton, WI, Khan, F, Todd, AC & Johnson, CSeasonal variation in bone lead contribution to blood lead during pregnancy. Environ Res 2001 85, 191–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
176Rylander, L & Hagmar, LMedical and psychometric examinations of conscripts born to mothers with a high intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorines. Scand J Work Environ Health 2000 26, 207–212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
177Ryu, JE, Ziegler, EE & Fomon, SJMaternal lead exposure and blood lead concentration in infancy. J Pediatr 1978 93, 476–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
178Ryu, JE, Ziegler, EE, Nelson, SE & Fomon, SJDietary intake of lead and blood lead concentration in early infancy. Am J Dis Child 1983 137, 886–891.Google Scholar
179Sakamoto, M, Kubota, M, Matsumoto, S, Nakano, A & Akagi, HDeclining risk of methylmercury exposure to infants during lactation. Environ Res 2002 90, 185–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
180Saleh, MA, Ragab, AA, Kamel, A, Jones, J & el-Sebae, AKRegional distribution of lead in human milk from Egypt. Chemosphere 1996 32, 1859–1867.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
181Sanchez-Pozo, A, Lopez, J, Pita, ML, Izquierdo, A, Guerrero, E, Sanchez-Medina, F, Martinez Valverde, A & Gil, AChanges in the protein fractions of human milk during lactation. Ann Nutr Metab 1986 30, 15–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
182Sandborgh-Englund, G, Ask, K, Belfrage, E & Ekstrand, JMercury exposure in utero and during infancy. J Toxicol Environ Health 2001 63, 317–320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
183Sartorelli, E, Gori, R, Sartorelli, S & Buffi, CLead and cadmium values in the blood of parturients not exposed occupationally, in neonatal blood and in maternal milk (in Italian). Med Lav 1986 77, 515–518.Google ScholarPubMed
184Schaum, J, Schuda, L, Wu, C, Sears, R, Ferrario, J & Andrews, KA national survey of persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) pollutants in the United States milk supply. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2003 13, 177–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
185Schramel, P, Hasse, S, Ovcar-Pavlu, JSelenium, cadmium, lead, and mercury concentrations in human breast milk, in placenta, maternal blood, and the blood of the newborn. Biol Trace Elem Res 1988 15, 111–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
186Schramel, P, Lill, G, Hasse, S & Klose, BJMineral- and trace element concentrations in human breast milk, placenta, maternal blood, and the blood of the newborn. Biol Trace Elem Res 1988 16, 67–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
187Schumann, KThe toxicological estimation of the heavy metal content (Cd, Hg, Pb) in food for infants and small children (in German). Z Ernahrungswiss 1990 29, 54–73.Google ScholarPubMed
188Seki, K, Kato, T, Sekiya, S, Makimura, N, Kudoh, K, Furuya, K & Nagata, IParathyroid-hormone-related protein in human milk and its relation to milk calcium. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1997 44, 102–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
189Sell, JL, Deitz, FD & Buchanan, MLConcentration of mercury in animal products and soils of North Dakota. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 1975 3, 278–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
190Senterre, J, Putet, G, Salle, B & Rigo, JEffects of vitamin D and phosphorus supplementation on calcium retention in preterm infants fed banked human milk. J Pediatr 1983 103, 305–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
191Shannon, MLead poisoning from an unexpected source in a 4-month-old infant. Environ Health Perspect 1998 106, 313–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
192Silbergeld, EK, Nash, D, Trevant, C, Strickland, GT, de Souza, JM & da Silva, RSMercury exposure and malaria prevalence among gold miners in Pará, Brazil. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2002 35, 421–429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
193Sinks, T & Jackson, RJInternational study finds breast milk free of significant lead contamination. Environ Health Perspect 1999 107, A58–A59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
194Skerfving, SMercury in women exposed to methylmercury through fish consumption, and in their newborn babies and breast milk. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1988 41, 475–482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
195Somogyi, A & Beck, HNurturing and breast-feeding: exposure to chemicals in breast milk. Environ Health Perspect 1993 101, Suppl.245–52.Google ScholarPubMed
196Sowers, MR, Scholl, TO, Hall, G, Jannausch, ML, Kemp, FW, Li, X & Bogden, JDLead in breast milk and maternal bone turnover. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002 187, 770–776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
197Specker, BLNutritional concerns of lactating women consuming vegetarian diets. Am J Clin Nutr 1994 59, Suppl.1182S–1186S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
198Srikumar, TS, Johansson, GK, Ockerman, P-A, Gustafsson, J-A & Akesson, BTrace element status in healthy subjects switching from a mixed to a lactovegetarian diet for 12mo. Am J Clin Nutr 1992 a 55, 885–890.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
199Srikumar, TS, Kallgard, B, Ockerman, PA & Akesson, BThe effects of a 2-year switch from a mixed to a lactovegetarian diet on trace element status in hypertensive subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr 1992 b 46, 661–669.Google ScholarPubMed
200Stephens, R & Waldron, HAThe influence of milk and related dietary constituents on lead metabolism. Food Cosmet Toxicol 1975 13, 555–563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
201Sternowsky, HJ & Wessolowski, RLead and cadmium in breast milk. Higher levels in urban vs rural mothers during the first 3 months of lactation. Arch Toxicol 1985 57, 41–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
202Stoz, F, Aicham, P, Jovanovic, S, Steuer, W & Mayer, REffects of new dental amalgam fillings in pregnancy on Hg concentration in mother and child. With consideration for possible interactions between amalgam and precious metals (in German). Zentralbl Gynakol 1995 17, 45–50.Google Scholar
203Sundberg, J, Ersson, B, Lonnerdal, B & Oskarsson, AProtein binding of mercury in milk and plasma from mice and man – a comparison between methylmercury and inorganic mercury. Toxicology 1999 137, 169–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
204Sweet, LI & Zelikoff, JTToxicology and immunotoxicology of mercury: a comparative review in fish and humans. J Toxicol Environ Health 2002 4, 161–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
205Terry, PD, Rohan, TE & Wolk, AIntakes of fish and marine fatty acids and the risks of cancers of the breast and prostate and of other hormone-related cancers: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. Am J Clin Nutr 2003 77, 532–543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
206Tiran, B, Rossipal, E, Tiran, A, Karpf, E & Lorenz, OBurden of cadmium and lead content in human milk and formulas in Styria, Austria: a moderate industrial area. Trace Elem Electro 1994 11, 42–45.Google Scholar
207Toth, E, Benkone, VZ, Oroszlan, G & Ulveczky, EPrenatal lead blood levels in a city heavily exposed to lead. Orvosi Hetilap 1989 130, 2679–2681.Google Scholar
208Tripathi, RM, Raghunath, R, Sastry, VN & Krishnamoorthy, TMDaily intake of heavy metals by infants through milk and milk products. Sci Total Environ 1999 227, 229–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
209Turan, S, Saygi, S, Kilic, Z & Acar, ODetermination of heavy metal contents in human colostrum samples by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrophotometry. J Trop Pediatr 2001 47, 81–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
210Uemura, H, Yasui, T, Yoned, N, Irahara, M & Aono, TMeasurement of N- and C-terminal-region fragments of parathyroid hormone-related peptide in milk from lactating women and investigation on the relationship of their concentrations to calcium in milk. J Endocrinol 1997 153, 445–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
211Ursinyova, M & Hladikova, VThe intake of selected toxic elements from milk in infants. Fresenius Environ Bull 1997 6, 627–632.Google Scholar
212Ursinyova, M & Hladikova, VDietary intake of cadmium, lead and mercury in vegetarian and non-vegetarian children. Fresenius Environ Bull 1998 7, 585–592.Google Scholar
213Vahter, M, Akesson, A, Lind, B, Bjors, U, Schutz, A & Berglund, MLongitudinal study of methylmercury and inorganic mercury in blood and urine of pregnant and lactating women, as well as in umbilical cord blood. Environ Res 2000 84, 186–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
214VanderJagt, DJ, Okolo, SN, Romero, L, Millson, M & Glew, RHLead levels in the milk of Fulani women in Nigeria. J Natl Med Assoc 2001 93, 104–108.Google ScholarPubMed
215Vatten, LJ, Solvoll, K & Loken, EBFrequency of meat and fish intake and risk of breast cancer in a prospective study of 14,500 Norwegian women. Int J Cancer 1990 46, 12–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
216Vavilis, D, Bontis, J, Agorastos, T, Angelikakis, G, Zournatzi, V, Loufopoulos, A, Constantinou, A & Patsourou, ALead concentrations in early human milk of urban and rural mothers. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol 1997 24, 198–199.Google Scholar
217Vestergaard, M, Obel, C, Henriksen, TB, Sorensen, HT, Skajaa, E & Ostergaard, JDuration of breastfeeding and developmental milestones during the latter half of infancy. Acta Paediatr 1999 88, 1327–1332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
218Vimy, MJ, Hooper, DE, King, WW & Lorscheider, FLMercury from maternal "silver" tooth fillings in sheep and human breast milk. A source of neonatal exposure. Biol Trace Elem Res 1997 56, 143–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
219Vimy, MJ, Takahashi, Y & Lorscheider, FLMaternal-fetal distribution of mercury (203Hg) released from dental amalgam fillings. Am J Physiol 1990 258, R939–R945.Google ScholarPubMed
220Vreugdenhil, HJ, Lanting, CI, Mulder, PG, Boersma, ER & Weisglas-Kuperus, NEffects of prenatal PCB and dioxin background exposure on cognitive and motor abilities in Dutch children at school age. J Pediatr 2002 140, 48–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
221Wade, MJ, Davis, BK, Carlisle, JS, Klein, AK & Valoppi, LMEnvironmental transformation of toxic metals. Occup Med 1993 8, 574–601.Google ScholarPubMed
222Wakatsuki, REnvironmental Pollution and Health Hazards Kodansha, Japanp.275(cited in Fujita & Takabatake, 1977)1973Google Scholar
223Walker, BLead content of milk and infant formulas. J Food Prot 1980 43, 178–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
224Westoo, GMercury and methylmercury levels in Swedish cow's milk and human milk. Var Foda 1993 25, 122–123(cited in Oskarssonet al..1996).Google Scholar
225Whanger, PDFactors affecting the metabolism of nonessential metals in foods.In Nutritional Toxicology, vol.I, pp.164–208 [JN, Hathcock, editor].: Academic Press. 1982Google Scholar
226Winfield, SA, Boyd, ND, Vimy, MJ & Lorscheider, FLMeasurement of total mercury in biological specimens by cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectrometry. Clin Chem 1994 40, 206–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
227Wolman, RL, Clark, P, NcNally, E, Harries, MG & Reeve, JDietary calcium as a statistical determinant of spinal trabecular bone density in amenorrhoeic and oestrogen-replete athletes. Bone Miner 1992 17, 415–423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
228World Health Organization 1989 Minor and Trace Elements in Human Milk. Report of a Joint WHO/IEAE Collaborative Study. Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
229World Health Organization Lead, cadmium and mercury. In Trace Elements in Human Nutrition and Health, pp.195–216Geneva: WHO. 1996Google Scholar
230Yang, J, Jiang, Z, Wang, Y, Qureshi, IA & Wu, XDMaternal-fetal transfer of metallic mercury via the placenta and milk. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1997 27, 135–141.Google ScholarPubMed
231Yeo, JM, Knight, CH & Chamberlain, DGEffects of changes in dietary amino acid balance on milk yield and mammary function in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2003 86, 1436–1444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
232Yoshinaga, J, Li, JZ, Suzuki, T, Karita, K, Abe, M, Fujii, H, Mishina, J & Morita, MTrace elements in human transitory milk. Variation caused by biological attributes of mother and infant. Biol Trace Elem Res 1991 31, 159–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
233Zahradnicek, L, Jodl, J, Sevcik, J, Lenicek, J, Citkova, M & Subrt, PForeign substances in maternal milk (in Czech). Cesk Pediatr 1989 44, 80–83.Google Scholar
234Ziegler, EE, Edwards, BB, Jensen, RL, Mahaffey, KR & Fomon, SJAbsorption and retention of lead by infants. Pediat Res 1978 12, 29–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed