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Courting the Cerebellum: Early Organological and Phrenological Views of Sexuality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 January 2009

Michael Shortland
Michael Shortland
Affiliation:
Department for External Studies, University of Oxford, Rewley House, Wellington Square, Oxford OX1 2JA, U.K.
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Extract

Although phrenology has begun to receive serious attention as a doctrine of mind, as popular science, as part of medical history, as a vehicle for social and ideological interests, and as an important component of American and European (especially British) culture in the early nineteenth century, there is one aspect of it which has evaded the eye of contemporary historians.’ This is the place within phrenology of the understanding of human sexuality. This is a subject of manifest general historical interest, and one whose neglect by scholars seems all the more striking once it is recognized that phrenologists themselves often judged it the most crucial, the best evidenced, and the most impressive part of their system of beliefs. In turning for the first time to phrenological attitudes to sex, my objective in what follows is not to offer an exhaustive treatment but rather to set down the broad lines of development followed by organological and phrenological doctrines. It is hoped that this will encourage and enable historians to consider the subject in further detail and from other perspectives. Other topics of research may also be suggested by the material that is presented here. For example, if phrenology was as important in the early decades of the nineteenth century as is now widely accepted, and if the views of sexual instinct within the theory and practice of phrenology were of the kind which I shall suggest, then it may be that our general attitudes to sexuality during the period under consideration stand in need of reassessment. This is an issue to which I hope to devote a further article; for the moment, a presentation of materials within a mainly expository framework may serve a valuable function.

Type
Research Article
Information
The British Journal for the History of Science , Volume 20 , Issue 2 , April 1987 , pp. 173 - 199
Copyright
Copyright © British Society for the History of Science 1987

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References

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11 See Hollander, , Search of the Soul, pp. 207–210.Google Scholar On the powerful network of oral communication in France at the time, and the way this spread knowledge of Gall's work, see Demangeon, , Physiologie IntellectuelleGoogle Scholar, Preface; and the Introduction to Nacquart, J.-B., Traité sur la Nouvelle Physiologie du Cerveau, Paris, 1808.Google Scholar For early contemporary reactions, see. Nivélet, F., Gall et sa Doctrine, Paris, 1890, pp. 14–17.Google Scholar

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14 Its full title is Anatomie et Physiologie du Système Nerveaux en Général, et du Cerveau en Particulier, avec des Observations sur la Possibilité de Reconnoitre Plusieurs Dispositions Intellectuelles et Morales de I'Homme et des Animaux, par la Confirmation de leurs Têtes (4 vols., Paris, 1810–1819Google Scholar; vols. 3 and 4 have Gall as the sole author). This work, which was sold along with a volume of plates, was priced at 1000 francs, and as Spurzheim recognized, was destined for library use (see Spurzheim, to Combe, , 10 05 1818, NLS 7203, fo. 107).Google Scholar

15 Sur les Functions du Cerveau et sur Celles de Chacune de ses Parties, 6 vols., Paris, 1822–1825.Google Scholar

16 OFB, I, p. 55.Google Scholar

17 See Ebstein, Erich, ‘Franz Joseph Gall in Kampf um seine Lehre auf, grand unbekannter Briefe an Bertruch usw. mit zwei Bildern Galls’, in Singer, C. and Sigerist, H.E. (ed.), Essays on the History of Medicine Presented to Karl Sudhoff, Berlin, 1924, pp. 269–322Google Scholar; Combe, Andrew, ‘The substance of an address to the students of Anderson's University’, The Lancet, (1846), i, pp. 61–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Temkin, Owsei, ‘Remarks on the neurology of Gall and Spurzheim’, in Underwood, E. Ashworth (ed.), Science, Medicine and History: Essays on the Evolution of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice Written in Honour of Charles Singer, 2 vols., London, 1953, II, pp. 282–289Google Scholar; Ackerknecht, Erwin H., ‘Contributions of Gall and the phrenologists to knowledge of brain function’Google Scholar; Lesky, Erna, ‘Structure and function in Gall’Google Scholar; Hollander, Bernard, ‘The Centenary of Francis Joseph Gall 1758–1828’, Medical Life, (1928), 35, pp. 373–380Google Scholar; Lanteri-Laura, , Histoire de la phrénologie, pp. 73–115Google Scholar; Zangwill, O.L., ‘The cerebral localization of psychological function’, Advancement of Science, (1963), 20, pp. 335–344Google Scholar; and Young, Robert M., Mind, Brain and Adaptation, pp. 23–37.Google Scholar

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29 G. Combe, 1819–1820 Notebooks, NLS 7406, fo. 72–73—and this notwithstanding his earlier worry that phrenology could very easily become a ‘wide field for quackery’ (ibid., fo. 31).

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43 The efforts made are recounted by Symes, E.S. in a letter ‘To the Editors of Zoist’, TZ, IX, 36, 1852, pp. 442–443Google Scholar, and by Elliotson, in ‘An account of the appearances after Haydon's death, with reflections upon phrenology and phrenologists’, TZ, XII, (1855), 45, pp. 62–74, 65–66.Google Scholar

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55 Though, as Canguilhem shows, Willis rendered such a notion possible (see Canguilhem, Georges, La Formation du Concept de Réflexe aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, Paris, 1977Google Scholar, especially chapter III and appendix).

56 See Willis, Thomas, Cerebri Anatome cui Nervorum Descriptio et Usus (1664), 2 vols., Montreal, 1965Google Scholar; and Thomas Willis's Oxford Lectures (ed. Dewhurst, Kenneth), Oxford, 1980, pp. 103–107, pp. 145–150.Google Scholar

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58 Rolando, L., ‘Expériences sur les fonctions du système nerveux’, Journal de Physiologie Expérimentale et Pathologique, (1823), III, pp. 95–113Google Scholar (Flourens' comments follow on pp. 113–114).

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64 See Serres, A., Anatomie Comparée du Cerveau, dans les Quatres Classes des Animaux Vertébrés Appliqué à la Physiologie du Système Nerveux, 2 vols., Paris, 1826, II, pp. 717–718.Google Scholar

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66 See Longet, F.A., Traité de Physiologie, 2 vols., Paris, 1850.Google Scholar This test is cited as decisive by Dow, and Moruzzi, , The Physiology and Pathology, p. 6.Google Scholar

67 Lélut, F., ‘Appréciation des idées de Gall’, Annales Médico-Psychologiques, (1843), II, pp. 175–195.Google Scholar

68 ‘Notice’, Lancet, (1855), I, p. 210.Google Scholar

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70 See Magendie, F., Leçons sur les Fonctions et les Maladies du Système Nerveux, 2 vols., Paris, 1839–1841, II, p. 262.Google Scholar See also Magendie's remarks which are not wholly critical of Gall in Desmoulins, A., Anatomie des Systèmes Nerveux des Animaux à Vertebres Appliqués à la Physiologic et à la Zoologie, Paris, 1825, p. 599Google Scholar [remarks reprinted in Bostock, John, An Elementary System of Physiology (3rd edn), 2 vols., London (1836), I, pp. 197–201].Google Scholar

71 See Zangwill, O.L., ‘The cerebral localization of psychological functions’Google Scholar; Knott, John, ‘Franz Joseph Gall and the “science” of phrenology’, Westminster Review, (1906), CLXVI, pp. 150–163, 159Google Scholar; Hunt, James, ‘On the localization of the functions of the brain, with special reference to the faculty of speech’, Anthropological Review, (1869), VII, pp. 201–214CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lanteri-Laura, , Histoire de la Phrénologie, pp. 178–192Google Scholar; and Hécaen, H. and Dubois, J., La Naissance de la Neurophysiologie du Langage, Paris, 1969.Google Scholar

72 OFB, III, p. 170.Google Scholar

73 Ibid., III, p. 167.

74 Ibid., III, p. 172.

75 Ibid., III, p. 172.

76 Ibid.

77 Ibid., III, pp. 180–183.

78 Ibid., III, pp. 184–185.

79 Ibid., III, pp. 189–200.

80 Ibid., III, p. 198.

81 Gall devotes some 120 pages to his discussion of the sexual instinct, that is roughly six times the length he allows any other. Its importance to Gall is further shown by the size of the organ (cerebellum), its role in man's well-being and in the perpetuation of the species. Gall reports that he wrote a Traité sur l'instinct de la propagation in 1818, but I can find no other record of this (see OFB, III, p. 178).Google Scholar

82 See ibid., III, p. 158.

83 Combe maintains that he published the work at his own expense in a letter to Elliotson, John, 10 03 1838Google Scholar, NLS 7388, fo.8.

84 OFB, III, p. 142.Google Scholar

85 Ibid., III, p. 152.

86 Ibid., III, p. 161.

87 Ibid., III, p. 155 (my emphasis); and Gall, F.J., Vimont and Broussais, On the Functions of the Cerebellum, by Drs Gall, Vimont, and Broussais, translated from the French by George Combe: also Answers to the Objections urged against Phrenology by Drs Roget, Rudolphi, Prichard, and Tiedermann; by George Combe and Dr A. Combe, Edinburgh, 1838, p. 12.Google Scholar

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89 Combe in Functions of the Cerebellum, p. 93.Google Scholar

90 Notebook 1833–1835, NLS 7440, fo. 138.

91 Combe, George, A System of Phrenology, 5th edn, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1843, I, pp. 183–184Google Scholar; Hewlett C. Watson in a review of The Anatomy of the Brain, fell into Latin and French (see ‘The Anatomy of the Brain’, PJ, VII, (1832), 31, pp. 434–444, p. 441).Google Scholar

92 See Anon., ‘Comparative merits of the mental philosophy of the school of Reid and Stewart, and of the phrenologists’, PJ, X, (1837), 50, pp. 301–336, 334.Google Scholar

93 Anon., ‘Review of On the Functions of the Brain’, PJ, XI, (1838), 56, pp. 298–307, 298.Google Scholar

94 See Anon., ‘The British medical journals’, PJ, XV, (1842), 72, pp. 266–277, 272.Google Scholar

95 See Spurzheim, J.C., Lectures on Phrenology, London, 1837, p. 35Google Scholar; and his ‘Lectures on phrenology, Lancet, VII, 1825, p. 134Google Scholar; also Broussais, F.J.V., ‘Lectures on phrenology, I’, Lancet, (1836), XXX, p. 580.Google Scholar

96 A translation of Gall's defence against the charges made against him by the Viennese authorities makes this clear (NLS 7449, ff. 32–49, published in Functions of the Cerebellum, pp. 309–339, see especially p. 312).Google Scholar

97 Spurzheim, to Combe, , 8 10 1821Google Scholar, NLS 7207, fo. 47.

98 See ‘notices’, PJ, III, 10, 1826, pp. 324–325Google Scholar (which reports the Courant article of 20 March 1825 or 1826). In his notebooks, Combe relates how discussions of physiology seemed to attract rather than deter ladies: ‘The forenoon lectures were attended chiefly by ladies, and when the physiological subjects were introduced, the number of ladies doubled, and mothers brought their daughters and fathers brought their sisters’ (NLS 7440, fo. 138).

99 See for an example, ‘Dunfermline Phrenological Society’, PJ, VII, (1832), 29, pp. 246–250, 247.Google Scholar

100 See, ‘Case of larger cerebellum’, PJ, V, 20, pp. 636–639Google Scholar; also notes below which report further case-studies.

101 See ‘History of the discovery of the phrenological organs’, PJ, II, 7, 1825, p. 451Google Scholar; Spurzheim, J.C., Essai sur les Principes Élémentaires de l'Education, Paris, 1820, pp. 39, 48–49, 58)Google Scholar; functions of the Cerebellum, p. XIXGoogle Scholar; Spurzheim, J.C., A View of the Philosophical Principles of Phrenology, 3rd edn., London, c. 1845, p. 52Google Scholar; Voisin, Felix, De l'Homme Animal, Paris, 1839, p. 93Google Scholar: Broussais, , ‘Lecture I’, p. 583.Google Scholar

102 See Spurzheim, J.C., Outlines of the Physiogiomical System of Drs Gall and Spurzheim: Indicating the Predispositions and Manifestations of the Mind, London, 1815, pp. 106–107Google Scholar; and his Observations sur la Phraenologie ou la Connaissance de l'Homme Moral et Intellectuelle, Fondée sur les Fonctions du Système Nerveux (sic), Paris, 1818, pp. 129, 138.

103 See Combe, 1821–1826 Notebook, NLS 7408, ff. 49, pp. 53–56; and Functions of the Cerebellum, pp. 181–188.Google Scholar

104 Lewes, G.H., The Physiology of Common Life, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1859, II, pp. 122–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

105 See Alison, W.P., Dissertation on the State of Medical Science, from the Termination of the Eighteenth Century to the Present Time, London, 1834, p. 6Google Scholar; and his Outlines of Physiology and Pathology; with a Supplement to the Physiology, Embracing an Account of the Most Recent Additions to that Science, Edinburgh, 1836, p. 253.Google Scholar

106 Mayo, Herbert, Outlines of Human Physiology, London, 1837, p. 245Google Scholar; Carpenter, W.B., Principles of Human Physiology, 5th edn., London, 1857, pp. 522–523Google Scholar; Prichard, J.C., Treatise on Insanity and Other Disorders affecting the Mind, London, 1835, p. 482CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Solly, Samuel, The Human Brain; Its Structure, Physiology and Diseases, 2nd edn., London 1837, p. 323.Google Scholar See also the reprint from Dr Noble's The Brain and its Physiology in ‘On the insufficiency of the evidence on which some physiologists attribute to the cerebellum functions related to certain muscular actions’, PJ, XX, (1847), 92, pp. 251–268Google Scholar, with comments by an anonymous phrenologist.

107 See Jeffrey, Francis, ‘Phrenology’, Edinburgh Review, (1826), LXXXVIII, pp. 253–318, 314.Google Scholar

108 See ‘On the insufficiency’, PJ, XX, (1847), 92, pp. 251–268.Google Scholar

109 OFB, III, p. 259.Google Scholar

110 See for example, ‘Cruelty to animals—Sir William Hamilton’s experiments’, PJ, VII, (1832), 31, pp. 427–433.Google Scholar

111 See on this Olmstead, J.M.D., François Magendie: Pioneer in Experimental Physiology and Scientific Medicine in XIX Century France, New York, 1944, pp. 138–143.Google Scholar

112 See Fairholme, E.G. and Pain, W., A Century of Work for Animals: The History of the R.S.P.C.A., 1824–1934, London, 1934Google Scholar; and Harrison, B., ‘Animals and the State in nineteenth-century England’, English Historical Review, (1973), LXXXVIII, pp. 786–820.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

113 See Cranefield, P.P., The Way In and the Way Out: François Magendie, Charles Bell, and the Roots of the Spinal Nerves, New York, 1974.Google Scholar

114 French, Richard D., Antivivisection and Medical Science in Victorian Society, Princeton, 1975, p. 19.Google Scholar

115 See ‘The London Press and the Phrenological Journal’, PJ, VII, (1983), 30, pp. 309–313, 309, 312.Google Scholar

116 Gall, , OFB, III, p. 244Google Scholar; ‘Flourens on the nervous system’, PJ, I, (1825), 3, pp. 455–463Google Scholar; ‘Bouillaud's experiments to discover the function of the brain’, PJ, VII, (1832), 28, pp. 133–144Google Scholar, and VII, (1832), 29, pp. 224–234; Combe, , Functions of the Cerebellum, p. 188.Google Scholar

117 See Functions of the Cerebellum, pp. 131–148Google Scholar; ‘On the insufficiency’, p. 260.Google Scholar

118 Broussais, F.J.V., ‘Lectures on Phrenology, I’, p. 577–583Google Scholar; and his Cours de Phrénologie Fait à la Faculté de Médicine de Paris, Paris, 1836, pp. 164–187.Google Scholar

119 Vimont, J., Traité de Phrénologie Humaine et Comparée, 2 vols., Paris, 1822–1825, II, p. 242Google Scholar; see also the discussion in II, pp. 230–245.

120 Atkinson, George and Martineau, Harriet, Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and Development, London, 1851, p. 61.Google Scholar See also Lussana, Phillipe, ‘Leçons sur les fonctions de cervelet’, Journal de la Physiologie de l'Homme, (1862), V, pp. 418–441, 441 for similar moves.Google Scholar

121 OFB, III, p. 154.Google Scholar

122 Ibid., III, p. 208.

123 Ibid., III, pp. 208–209.

124 For example, in Browne, W. A.F., Observations on Religious Fanaticism, London, 1835Google Scholar, reviewed in PJ, X, (1836), 46, pp. 532–545.Google Scholar

125 A strong anti-clericalism is also to be found in Voisin, Felix's De l'Homme Animal, Paris, 1839, pp. 81–88Google Scholar; the author says that of 31 priests he knew, 26 had been condemned for rape! (see p. 86).

126 OFB, III, p. 146.Google Scholar

127 Ibid., III, p. 142.

128 Ibid., III, p. 146.

129 See Porter, Roy, ‘Mixed feelings: the enlightenment and sexuality in eighteenth-century Britain’, in Boucé, Paul Gabriel (ed.), Sexuality in Eighteenth-Century Britain, Manchester, 1982, pp. 1–27.Google Scholar

130 OFB, III, p. 141f.Google Scholar

131 Voisin, , De l'Homme Animal, pp. 89–90.Google Scholar

132 See Anon., ‘On the natural supremacy of the moral sentiments’, PJ, III, (1826), 11, pp. 327–351.Google Scholar

133 See 1820–1821 Notebook, NLS 7407, ff. 20, 22.

134 See Grant, A. Cameron, ‘New light on an old view’ Journal of the History of Ideas, XXIX, (1968), 2, pp. 293–301, 294CrossRefGoogle Scholar; his ‘Combe on phrenology and freewill: a note on XlXth-century secularism’, Journal of the History of Ideas, (1965), XXVI, pp. 141–147Google Scholar; de Giustino, David, Conquest of Mind, pp. 140–145Google Scholar; and Combe, George, Life and Dying Testimony of Abram Combe, in Favour of Robert Owen's New Views of Man and Society, London, 1844.Google Scholar These all offer useful perspectives, but none of them treat the issue of sexuality.

135 See Combe, , ‘Phrenology and Mr Owen’, PJ, I, (1824), 3, pp. 463–466.Google Scholar

136 Owen, to Combe, , 26 02 1824, NLS 7213, fo. 156.Google Scholar

137 Combe, to Owen, , 28 02 1824, NLS 7383, fo. 14.Google Scholar

138 Owen, to Combe, , 4 03 1824, NLS 7213, fo. 159.Google Scholar

139 See for information, Combe, to Owen, 5 March 7383, NLS 7383, fo. 19Google Scholar; the letter is reproduced in Combe's ‘Phrenology and Mr Owen’, p. 464.Google Scholar

140 See on this Taylor, Barbara, Eve and the New Jerusalem, London, 1983, p. 42f.Google Scholar; and Saville, J., ‘Robert Owen on the family’, in Cornforth, M. (ed.), Rebels and Their Causes, London, 1978.Google Scholar

141 Combe, , ‘Phrenological analysis of Mr Owen's new views of society’, PJ, I, (1824), 2, pp. 218–237, 227.Google Scholar

142 See Léonard, Jacques, La Médecine entre les Pouvoirs et les Savoirs, Paris, 1981, pp. 112–114.Google Scholar

143 In remarks made in footnotes to Combe's ‘Phrenological analysis of Mr Owen’, pp. 226–227.Google Scholar

144 See Combe, ibid., p. 229. Other similar statements may be found in ‘Letter to the Editor on Marriage’, PJ, II, (1825), 6, pp. 178–180Google Scholar; Anon., ‘Owenism and phrenology’, PJ, IX, (1834), 46, pp. 489–494Google Scholar; and Smith, William Hawkes, ‘Remarks on the application of phrenology as a test of the practicality of socialism’, PJ, XIII, (1840), XIII, pp. 119–128Google Scholar; also Combe in 1820–1821 Notebook, NLS 7407, fo. 20; and Combe, to Smith, W. Hawkes, 28 08 1838, NLS 7388, fo. 82.Google Scholar

145 See for example, Combe, George, Moral Philosophy; or, the Duties of Man, Considered in his Individual, Social and Domestic Capacities, Edinburgh, 1840, p. 110.Google Scholar

146 Spurzheim, , Sur la Phraenologie, p. 139.Google Scholar

147 Foucault, Michel, The History of Sexuality, vol. I. An Introduction, London, 1979.Google Scholar

148 This image has often been presented as the colonization of the sexual by external modes of thought and metaphors. Thus, the sexual becomes taken over by military metaphors especially in the arena of contraception (see for examples, Wood, C. and Suitters, B., The Flight for Acceptance: A History of Contraception, Aylesbury, 1970, pp. 93, 96Google Scholar; Sontag, S., Illness as Metaphor, London, 1979, p. 66)Google Scholar. Or economic metaphors are used (see examples, Britain, Ian, Fabianism and Culture, Cambridge, 1983, pp. 116–117Google Scholar; Walters, Ronald C., Primers for Prudery, New Jersey, 1974, pp. 34, 87Google Scholar; de Vries, Leonard and Fryer, Peter (eds), Venus Unmasked or an Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of the Passion of Love, London, 1967, p. 8)Google Scholar. Elsewhere and rather later, energy models are deployed (see Beecher, Catherine E. and Beecher Stowe, Harriet, The American Woman's Home (1869), Hartford, 1975, pp. 111, 255Google Scholar; Skultans, Vieda, Madness and Morals: Ideas of Insanity in the Nineteenth Century, London, 1975, p. 18Google Scholar; Sontag, , Illness, p. 64Google Scholar: Hall, Ruth (ed.), Dear Or Stopes, London, 1978, p. 164)Google Scholar. And (not finally) the electricity model (see Rosenberg, Charles E., ‘Scientific theories and social thought’, in Barnes, Barry (ed.), Sociology of Science, Harmondsworth, 1972, pp. 292–308, 294–275Google Scholar; Wilson, Colin, Origins of the Sexual Impulse, London, 1966, pp. 24–26Google Scholar; and Aspiz, Harold, ‘The body electric: science, sex, and metaphor’, Walt Whitman Review, (1978), 24, 4, pp. 137–142)Google Scholar. It would not be difficult to compile an inventory of the metaphorical approaches to sex and sexuality during the nineteenth century; more difficult would be to account for these satisfactorily. At present Susan Sontag's brilliant but slender volume is one of the best attempts we possess.

149 Anon., ‘On the natural supremacy’ (see note 132 above). As a contrast, see Anon., ‘On the influence of amativeness on the higher sentiments and intellect’, PJ, II, (1825), 7, pp. 391–407.Google Scholar The latter was judged important to merit and to receive translation into French (see ‘Notices’, PJ, IV, 15, 1826, p. 477).Google Scholar

150 See Combe, to Spurzheim, , 8 10 1821, NLS 7207, fo. 67Google Scholar; Combe, , 1826–1836 Notebook, NLS 7409, ff. 80–81Google Scholar (entry dated 2 January 1830).

151 See Functions of the Cerebellum, p. XVI.Google Scholar

152 OFB, VI, p. 302Google Scholar (‘It is the nape of his neck which has been his ruin’).

153 See Elliotson, to Combe, , 21 03 1838, NLS 7246, fo. 128.Google Scholar

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157 OFB, III, p. 165.Google Scholar

158 See for examples: Anon. ‘Case illustrative of the utility of phrenology’, PJ, IX, (1836), 45, pp. 459–466, 460Google Scholar; Combe, , Functions of the Cerebellum, p. 175Google Scholar: ‘On the female character’, PJ, II, (1825), 6, esp. p. 277Google Scholar; Watson, Hewett C. ‘The anatomy of the brain’, PJ, VII, (1832), 31, pp. 434–444, 437, 439–440Google Scholar; and contrast to French view- Voisin, De l‘Homme Animal, p. 66Google Scholar; Vimont, , Traité, I, p. 236.Google Scholar

159 See Combe, , 1821–1826 Notebook, NLS 7408, fo. 91.Google Scholar For a treatment of Lavaterian physiognomy which stresses its basis in perception touches upon its use in reading sexual characteristics, see my ‘Skin deep: Barthes, Lavater and the legible body’, Economy and Society, XIV, (1985), 3, pp. 273–312.Google Scholar

160 See Anon. ‘Theory of animal resemblances’, PJ, VII, (1832), 32, pp. 552–555.Google Scholar

161 See Gall, , OFB, V. p. 272.Google Scholar

162 See ‘Illustrations of phrenology’, PJ, III, (1826), 12, pp. 635–639, esp. p. 635.Google Scholar

163 Paul Julius Möbius, Franz Joseph Call. Möbius also wrote an article which I have not seen: ‘Uber Galls specielle Organologie’, Carl Christian Schmidt's Jahrbücher der Medicin (formerly Jahrbücher der in- und ausländichen gesammten Medicin), CCLXVII, 1900. As far as Freud is concerned, he certainly knew of Gall's work (see for example, Jung to Freud, 6 July 1907, in McGuire, William ed., The Freud/Jung Letters, London, 1974, p. 73)Google Scholar. Möbius was impressed by the way Gall had apparently described the relation of hysteria and sexuality (as in the case study we reported above) and this forms a central plank in his assessment of Gall's work. In the ‘Preliminary Communication’ to the Studies on Hysteria, Freud (and Breuer) say that Möbius held ‘similar views on hysteria to ours’. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (ed. Strachey, John), 24 vols., London, 1953–1973, II, p. 8nGoogle Scholar; see also pp. 186–188, 190–191, 215, 243, 248n. Later, Freud says that much of the information in his first of Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality is taken from Möbius and others (Complete Works, VII, p. 135n)Google Scholar. For further information on this interesting link, see Jones, Ernest, Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Vol. I. The Young Freud, 1856–1900, London, 1953, p. 323n, p. 405Google Scholar; Sulloway, Frank J., Freud, Biologist of the Mind, London, 1980, p. 279Google Scholar; Ellenberger, Henri F., The Discovery of the Unconscious, New York, 1970, pp. 289, 292, 302, 375Google Scholar and passim; and Levin, Kenneth, Freud's Early Psychology of the Neuroses, Hassocks, 1978, pp. 67–68, 186–188.Google Scholar

164 Ellis, Henry Havelock, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, 4 vols., New York, 1936, 1, 2, pp. 15–16.Google Scholar For an interesting indication of the view of the sexual instinet being sited in the genital organs, see de Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste's lecture, ‘Systeme de Gall’ in Wheeler, William Morton and Barbour, Thomas (eds), The Lamarck Manuscripts at Harvard, Cambridge, Mass., 1933, p. 6 (translation on p. 106).Google Scholar