Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-v2bm5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-11T23:29:46.091Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Deposition of Iron Objects in Britain During the Later Prehistoric and Roman Periods: Contextual Analysis and the Significance of Iron

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 March 2010

Richard Hingley
Richard Hingley
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, Durham University, [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Central to this paper is the meaning of the actions that lead to iron objects being found in archaeological contexts of later prehistoric and Roman date. It is argued that the placing of iron objects within the physical landscape reflects upon the changing nature of society at this time. In Iron Age studies, many deposits in rivers, bogs and in the pits, ditches and post-holes of settlements are now interpreted as ‘special’ material buried for significant reasons, through acts that are often called ‘structured deposition’. This approach has had a deep influence on the excavation and post-excavation of Iron Age settlements and is now coming to influence the study of the deposition of artefacts on Roman sites. This paper develops the idea that much of the later prehistoric and Roman ironwork found on settlements and elsewhere was deliberately deposited for what might loosely be called ‘ritual’ or ‘religious’ motives; for much of this period the proportion of the artefacts lost accidentally was possibly quite small. Artefacts in other materials also require comparable study, but, while work that integrates the examination of items made from different materials on individual sites is important, this paper focuses upon iron due to its potential significance as a highly symbolic medium.

Keywords

Roman BritainIron Ageritual depositioniron objectsRoman settlementstempleswells
Type
Articles
Information
Britannia , Volume 37 , November 2006 , pp. 213 - 257
Copyright
Copyright © Richard Hingley 2006. Exclusive Licence to Publish: The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dioscorides, , The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides. Translated by Gunter, R.T., 1934, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Herodian, , Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius to the Accession of Gordian III. Translated by Echols, E.C., 1961, BerkeleyGoogle Scholar
, Pliny, Natural History VIII. Translated by Jones, W.H.S., 1963, LondonGoogle Scholar
Aldhouse-Green, M. 2002: ‘Any old iron! Symbolism and ironworking in Iron Age Europe’, in Aldhouse-Green, M. and Webster, P. (eds), Artefacts and Archaeology: Aspects of the Celtic and Roman World, Cardiff, 8–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, D. 1967: ‘Iron currency bars in Britain’, Proceedings Prehistoric Society 33, 307–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balch, H.E. 1911: ‘A late Celtic and Romano-British cave-dwelling at Wookey-Hole, near Wells, Somerset’, Archaeologia 62, 565–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, J.C., Freeman, P.W.M., and Woodward, A. 2000: Cadbury Castle Somerset, the Later Prehistoric and Early Historic Archaeology, LondonGoogle Scholar
Bartlett, R. 1988: ‘The Harlow Celtic temple: a Celtic shrine underlies the famous Roman temple’, Current Archaeology 10, 163–6Google Scholar
Beagon, M. 1992: Roman Nature: the Thoughts of Pliny the Elder, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birbeck, V. 2002: ‘Excavations on Iron Age and Romano-British settlements at Cannards Grave, Shepton Mallett’, Somerset Archaeology and Natural History 144, 41–116Google Scholar
Booth, P. 1997: Asthall, Oxfordshire: Excavations in a Roman ‘Small Town’, 1992, EynshamGoogle Scholar
Booth, P. 2001: ‘The Roman shrine at Westhawk Farm, Ashford: a preliminary account’, Archaeologica Cantiana 121, 1–23Google Scholar
Bonnamour, L., and Dumont, A. 1996: ‘Les armes romaines de la Saône: état des découvertes et données récentes de fouilles’, Proceedings of the Ninth International Roman Military Equipment Conference, Leiden, 1994 = Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 5, 141–54Google Scholar
Bowden, M., and McOmish, D. 1987: ‘The required barrier’, Scottish Archaeological Review 4, 76–84Google Scholar
Bradford, J.S.P., and Goodchild, R.G. 1939: ‘Excavations at Frilford, Berks’, Oxoniensia 4, 1–70Google Scholar
Bradley, R. 1987: ‘Stages in the chronological development of hoards and votive deposits’, Proceedings Prehistoric Society 53, 351–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. 1998: The Passage of Arms: An Archaeological Analysis of Prehistoric Hoards and Votive Deposits (new edn), OxfordGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. 2005: Ritual and Domestic Life in Prehistoric Europe, LondonGoogle Scholar
Branigan, K., and Dearne, M. 1992: Romano-British Cavemen: Cave Use in Roman Britain, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Brinson, J.G.S. 1963: ‘Chesterford, Great’, in The Victoria County History of the Counties of England: A History of Essex, III, 72–88Google Scholar
Brunaux, J.-L. 1988: The Celtic Gauls: Gods, Rites and Sanctuaries, LondonGoogle Scholar
Budd, P., and Taylor, T. 1995: ‘The faerie smith meets the bronze industry: magic versus science in the interpretation of prehistoric metal-making’, World Archaeology 27, 133–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cambridge Archaeological Field Unit 1997: Preliminary Summary: Middle and Late Iron Age Settlements Adjacent to Hinchingbrooke Park Road, Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Carter, G.A. 1998: Excavations at the Orsett ‘Cock’ Enclosure, Essex 1976, East Anglian Archaeology 86, ChelmsfordGoogle Scholar
Chowne, P., Cleal, R.M.J., Fitzpatrick, A., and Andrews, P. 2001: Excavations at Billingborough, Lincolnshire 1975–8: a Bronze-Iron Age Settlement and Salt-Working Site, East Anglian Archaeology 94, SalisburyGoogle Scholar
Clarke, S. 1997: ‘Abandonment, rubbish disposal and “special” deposits at Newstead’, in Meadows, K., Lemke, C. and Heron, J. (eds), TRAC 96: Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference Sheffeld 1996, Oxford, 73–81Google Scholar
Clarke, S. 2000: ‘In search of a different Roman period: the fnds assemblage at the Newstead military complex’, in Fincham, G., Harrison, G., Holland, R. and Revell, L. (eds), TRAC 99: Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference Durham 1999, Oxford, 22–9Google Scholar
Clarke, S., and Jones, R. 1996: ‘The Newstead pits’, Proceedings of the Ninth International Roman Military Equipment Conference, Leiden, 1994 = Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 5, 109–24Google Scholar
Colt Hoare, R. 1827: ‘Account of antiquities found at Hamden Hill, with fragments of British chariots’, Archaeologia 21, 39–42Google Scholar
Cracknell, S., and Hingley, R. 1994: ‘Park Farm, Barford: excavation of a prehistoric settlement site, 1988’, Trans. Birmingham and Warwicks. Arch. Soc. 98 (1993–4), 1–30Google Scholar
Crummy, P. 1997a: City of Victory: the Story of Colchester, ColchesterGoogle Scholar
Crummy, P. 1997b: ‘Colchester: the Stanway burials’, Current Archaeology 153, 337–42Google Scholar
Cunliffe, B.W. 1978: Iron Age Communities in Britain, LondonGoogle Scholar
Cunliffe, B.W. 1984: Danebury: An Iron Age Hillfort in Hampshire: Vol. 2. The Excavations 1969–1978: the Finds, LondonGoogle Scholar
Cunliffe, B.W. 1995: Danebury: An Iron Age Hillfort in Hampshire: Vol. 6. A Hillfort Community in Perspective, LondonGoogle Scholar
Cunliffe, B.W., and Poole, C. 1991a: Danebury: An Iron Age Hillfort in Hampshire: Vol. 4. The Excavations 1979–1988: the Site, LondonGoogle Scholar
Cunliffe, B.W., and Poole, C. 1991b: Danebury: An Iron Age Hillfort in Hampshire: Vol. 5. The Excavations 1979–1988: the Finds, LondonGoogle Scholar
Cunliffe, B.W., and Poole, C. 2000: The Danebury Environs Programme: Vol. 2, Part 6, Houghton Down, Stockbridge, Hants, 1994, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Curle, J. 1911: A Roman Frontier Post and its People: the Fort of Newstead in the Parish of Melrose, GlasgowGoogle Scholar
Davies, S.M. 1981: ‘Excavations at Old Down Farm, Andover: Part II: prehistoric and Roman’, Proc. Hampshire Field Club and Arch. Soc. 37, 81–163Google Scholar
Dungworth, D. 1998: ‘Mystifying Roman nails: clavus annalis, defxiones and minkisi’, in Forcey, C., Hawthorne, J. and Witcher, R. (eds), TRAC 97: Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference Nottingham 1997, Oxford, 148–59Google Scholar
Ellis, C.J., and Rawlings, M. 2001: ‘Excavations at Balksbury Camp, Andover 1995–97’, Proc. Hampshire Field Club and Arch. Soc. 56, 21–94Google Scholar
Esmonde Cleary, S. 2000: ‘Putting the dead in their place: burial location in Roman Britain’, in Pearce, J., Millett, M. and Struck, M. (eds), Burial, Society and Context in the Roman World, Oxford, 127–42Google Scholar
Evans, J. 1894: ‘On some iron tools and other articles formed of iron found at Silchester in the year 1890’, Archaeologia 54, 139–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fell, V. 1990: Pre-Roman Iron Age Metalworking Tools from England and Wales: their Use, Technology, and Archaeological Context, unpub. M. Phil. thesis, University of DurhamGoogle Scholar
Fenn, C. 2003: ‘Important Iron Age weapon cache found in East Riding’, Treasure Hunting March 2003, 6–9Google Scholar
Field, N., and Parker Pearson, M. 2003: Fiskerton: An Iron Age Timber Causeway with Iron Age and Roman Votive Offerings, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, A. 1984: ‘The deposition of La Tène Iron Age metalwork in watery contexts in Southern England’, in Cunliffe, B.W. and Miles, D. (eds), Aspects of the Iron Age in Central Southern Britain, Oxford, 178–90Google Scholar
Fowler, P.J. 1961: ‘Excavations at Madmarston Camp, Swalcliffe’, Oxoniensia 25 (1960), 3–48Google Scholar
Fox, G.E., and St John Hope, W.H. 1891: ‘Excavations on the site of the Roman city at Silchester, Hants’, Archaeologia 52, 733–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frere, S.S. 1964: ‘Excavations at Dorchester on Thames’, Arch. Journ. 119 (1962), 114–49Google Scholar
Fulford, M. 2001: ‘Links with the past: pervasive “ritual” behaviour in Roman Britain’, Britannia 32, 199–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrow, D., Lucy, S., and Gibson, D. forthcoming: Excavations at Kilverstone, Norfolk: the Neolithic Pits, Later Prehistoric, Romano-British and Anglo-Saxon Occupation and Later Activity, East Anglian ArchaeologyGoogle Scholar
Germany, M. 2003: Excavations at Great Holts Farm, Boreham, Essex, 1992–94, East Anglian Archaeology 105, ChelmsfordGoogle Scholar
Gillies, W. 1981: ‘The craftsman in early Celtic literature’, Scottish Archaeological Forum II, 70–85Google Scholar
Goodchild, R.G. 1938: ‘A priest's sceptre from the Romano-Celtic temple at Farley Heath, Surrey’, Antiq. Journ. 18, 391–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, M.J. 1976: The Religions of Civilian Roman Britain, BAR 24, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Greene, K. 2002: ‘Pots and plots in Roman Britain’, in Aldhouse-Green, M. and Webster, P. (eds), Artefacts and Archaeology: Aspects of the Celtic and Roman World, Cardiff, 235–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gresham, C. 1940: ‘Spettisbury Rings, Dorset’, Arch. Journ. 96 (1939), 114–31Google Scholar
Haselgrove, C. 1987: Iron Age Coinage in South-Eastern Britain: the Archaeological Context, BAR Brit. Ser. 174, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Haselgrove, C., Armit, I., Champion, T., Creighton, J., Gwilt, A., Hill, J.D., Hunter, F., and Woodward, A. 2001: Understanding the British Iron Age: An Agenda for Action, SalisburyGoogle Scholar
Haselgrove, C., and Hingley, R. in press (2005): ‘Iron deposition and its signifcance in pre-Roman Britain’, in Bataille, G.G. and Guillaumet, J.-P. (eds), Les dépôts d'objects métalliques aux âges du fer (Collection Bibracte), Glux-en-GlenneGoogle Scholar
Haselgrove, C., Lowther, P., and Turnbull, P. 1990: ‘Stanwick, North Yorkshire, Part 3: excavations on earthwork sites 1981–86’, Arch. Journ. 147, 37–90Google Scholar
Haselgrove, C., and Wigg-Wolf, D. 2005: ‘Introduction’, in Haselgrove, C. and Wigg-Wolf, D. (eds), Iron Age Coinage and Ritual Practices, Studien zu Fundmünzen der Antike (SFMA) 20, 9–22Google Scholar
Hencken, T.C. 1939: ‘The excavation of the Iron Age Camp on Bredon Hill, Gloucestershire, 1935–1937’, Arch. Journ. 95 (1938), 1–111Google Scholar
Herbert, E.W. 1993: Iron, Gender and Power: Rituals of Transformation in African Societies, BloomingtonGoogle Scholar
Hill, J.D. 1989: ‘Re-thinking the Iron Age’, Scottish Archaeological Review 6, 16–23Google Scholar
Hill, J.D. 1995a: Rituals and Rubbish in the Iron Age of Wessex, BAR Brit. Ser. 242, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Hill, J.D. 1995b: ‘How should we understand Iron Age societies and hillforts: a contextual study from Southern Britain’, in Hill, J.D. and Cumberpatch, C.G. (eds), Different Iron Ages: Studies of the Iron Age in Temperate Europe, BAR Int. Ser. 602, Oxford, 45–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hingley, R. 1989: Rural Settlement in Roman Britain, LondonGoogle Scholar
Hingley, R. 1990a: ‘Iron Age “currency bars”: the archaeological and social context’, Arch. Journ. 147, 91–117Google Scholar
Hingley, R. 1990b: ‘Boundaries surrounding Iron Age and Romano-British settlements’, Scottish Archaeological Review 7, 96–103Google Scholar
Hingley, R. 1997: ‘Iron, ironworking and regeneration: a study of the symbolic meaning of metalworking in Iron Age Britain’, in Gwilt, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds), Reconstructing Iron Age Societies, Oxford, 9–18Google Scholar
Hingley, R. 2005: ‘Iron Age “currency bars” in Britain: items of exchange in liminal contexts?’, in Haselgrove, C. and Wigg-Wolf, D. (eds), Iron Age Coinage and Ritual Practices, Studien zu Fundmünzen der Antike (SFMA) 20, 183–206Google Scholar
Hingley, R., Moore, H.L., Triscott, J.E., and Wilson, G. 1997: ‘The excavation of two later Iron Age fortifed homesteads at Aldclune, Blair Atholl, Perth & Kinross’, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland 127, 407–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinman, M. 2003: A Late Iron Age Farmstead and Romano-British Site at Haddon, Peterborough, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, R. 1966: ‘A hoard of Romano-British ironwork from Brampton, Cumberland’, Trans. Cumberland & Westmorland Antiq. & Arch. Soc. 66, 1–36Google Scholar
Hooley, R. 1921: ‘Note on a hoard of iron currency-bars found on Worthy Down, Winchester’, Antiq. Journ. 1, 321–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hooley, R. 1931: ‘Excavation of an early Iron Age village on Worthy Down, Winchester’, Proc. Hampshire Field Club and Arch. Soc. 10 (1926–1930), 178–92Google Scholar
Hunter, F. 1997: ‘Iron Age hoarding in Scotland and northern England’, in Gwilt, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds), Reconstructing Iron Age Societies, Oxford, 108–33Google Scholar
Hylton, T. 1996: ‘Iron objects/iron nails’, in Williams, R.J., Hart, P.J. and Williams, A.T.L., Wavendon Gate: A Late Iron Age and Roman Settlement in Milton Keynes, Aylesbury, 120–5Google Scholar
Insoll, T. 2004: Archaeology, Ritual and Religion, LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isserlin, R. in press: ‘Deposit or withdrawal?’, in Hingley, R. and Willis, S. (eds), Roman Finds: Context and Theory, Oxford, 183–95Google Scholar
Jackson, D. 1974: ‘Two new pit alignments and a hoard of currency bars from Northamptonshire’, Northants. Arch. 9, 13–45Google Scholar
Jackson, R. 1990: Camerton: the Late Iron Age and Early Roman Metalwork, LondonGoogle Scholar
Jarvis, K. 1985: ‘A late Iron Age site with a currency bar hoard at Bearwood, Poole, Dorset’, Proc. Dorset Nat. Hist. & Arch. Soc. 106 (1984), 138–42Google Scholar
Johns, C. 1995: ‘Romano-British precious-metal hoards: some comments on Martin Millett's paper’, in Cottam, S., Dungworth, D., Scott, S. and Taylor, J. (eds), TRAC 94: Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference 1994, Oxford, 107–18Google Scholar
Johns, C. 1996: ‘The classifcation and interpretation of Romano-British treasures’, Britannia 27, 1–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, A., and Soffe, G. 1998: ‘Internal organization and deposition at the Iron Age temple on Hayling Island’, Hampshire Studies 53, 35–47Google Scholar
Lambrick, G., and Allen, T. 2004: Gravelly Guy, Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire: the Development of a Prehistoric and Romano-British Community, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Leach, J. 1962: ‘The Smith God in Roman Britain’, Arch. Ael. 4 40, 35–46Google Scholar
Macdonald, G. 1906: ‘The Roman fort on the Bar Hill, Dumbartonshire’, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland 4 4 (1905–1906), 403–546CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Major, H. 2003: ‘Iron objects’, in Germany, M. (ed.), Excavations at Great Holts Farm, Boreham, Essex, 1992–94, East Anglian Archaeology 105, Chelmsford, 77–83Google Scholar
Manning, W.H. 1965: ‘Excavation of the Roman auxiliary tilery, Brampton’, Trans. Cumberland & Westmorland Antiq. & Arch. Soc. 65, 133–68Google Scholar
Manning, W.H. 1972: ‘Ironwork hoards in Iron Age and Roman Britain’, Britannia 3, 224–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manning, W.H. 1977: ‘Blacksmiths' tools from Waltham Abbey, Essex’, in Oddy, W.A. (ed.), Aspects of Early Metallurgy, London, 87–96Google Scholar
Manning, W.H., and Scott, I.R. 1986: ‘Iron objects’, in Stead, I.M. and Rigby, V., Baldock: the Excavation of a Roman and Pre-Roman Settlement, 1968–72, London, 145–62Google Scholar
Mariën, M.E. 1970: Le Trou de l'ambre au bois de Wérimont Eprave, BrusselsGoogle Scholar
Martin, TH., and Ruffat, H. 1998: ‘Un dépôt de lingots de fer du début de La Tène III à Montans (Tarn)’, in Feugère, M. and Serneels, V. (eds), Recherches sur l’économie du fer en Méditerranée nord-occidentale, Montagnac, 110–15Google Scholar
McArthur, C. 1990: ‘Excavations at Nadbury Camp, Warwickshire’, Trans. Birmingham & Warwicks. Arch. Soc. 95 (1987–1988), 1–16Google Scholar
Merrifeld, R. 1987: The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic, LondonGoogle Scholar
Merrifeld, R. 1997: ‘Roman metalwork from the Walbrook – rubbish, ritual or redundancy?’, Trans. London Middlesex Arch. Soc. 46 (1995), 27–44Google Scholar
Miles, D. 1986: Archaeology at Barton Court Farm, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, YorkGoogle Scholar
Millett, M. 1995: ‘Treasure: interpreting Roman hoards’, in Cottam, S., Dungworth, D., Scott, S. and Taylor, J. (eds), TRAC 94: Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference 1994, Oxford, 99–106Google Scholar
Neal, D. 1989: ‘The Stanwick Villa, Northants: an interim report on the excavations of 1984–88’, Britannia 20, 149–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neal, D., Wardle, A., and Hunn, J. 1990: Excavation of the Iron Age, Roman and Medieval Settlements at Gorhambury, St Albans, LondonGoogle Scholar
Neville, R.C. 1856: ‘Description of a remarkable deposit of Roman antiquities at Great Chesterford, Essex’, Arch. Journ. 13, 1–13Google Scholar
Osborne, R. 2004: ‘Hoards, votives, offerings: the archaeology of the dedicated object’, World Archaeology 36, 1–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, L.S. 1921: ‘Some early British remains from a Mendip Cave’, Journ. Royal Anthropological Institute 51, 200–15Google Scholar
Pearce, M. 1998: ‘Reconstructing prehistoric metallurgical knowledge: the Northern Italian Copper and Bronze Ages’, European Journ. Arch. 1, 51–70Google Scholar
Piggott, S. 1955: ‘Three metal-work hoards of the Roman period from Southern Scotland’, Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland 87 (1952–1953), 1–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pine, J., and Preston, S. 2004: Iron Age and Roman Settlement and Landscape at Totterdown Lane, Horcott near Fairford, Gloucestershire, ReadingGoogle Scholar
Pitts, L., and St Joseph, J.K. 1985: Inchtuthil: The Roman Legionary Fortress, LondonGoogle Scholar
Poole, C. 1995: ‘Pits and propitiation’, in Cunliffe, B.W., Danebury: an Iron Age Hillfort in Hampshire: Vol. 6. A Hillfort Community in Perspective, London, 249–75Google Scholar
Poulton, R., and Scott, E. 1993: ‘The hoarding, deposition and use of pewter in Roman Britain’, in Scott, E. (ed.), Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference: First Conference Proceedings, Aldershot, 115–32Google Scholar
Pryor, F. 2001: The Flag Fen Basin: Archaeology and Environment of a Fenland Landscape, LondonGoogle Scholar
Rees, S. 1979: Agricultural Implements in Prehistoric and Roman Britain, BAR, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Reid, C. 1901: ‘Excavations on the site of the Roman city at Silchester, Hants in 1900’, Archaeologia 57, 229–56Google Scholar
Richmond, I. 1968: Hod Hill: Volume Two: Excavations Carried Out Between 1951 and 1958 for the Trustees of the British Museum, LondonGoogle Scholar
Ross, A. 1967: Pagan Celtic Britain, LondonGoogle Scholar
RCHM 1970: An Inventory of Historical Monuments in the County of Dorset, Volume 2, South-east, Part 3, LondonGoogle Scholar
Savory, H.N. 1996: ‘A fnd of early Iron Age metalwork from the Lesser Garth, Pentyrch (Glam.)’, Arch. Camb. 115, 27–44Google Scholar
Schrüfer-Kolb, I. 2004: Roman Iron Production in Britain; Technological and Socio-economic Landscape Development along the Jurassic Ridge, BAR 380, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sellwood, L. 1984: ‘Tribal boundaries viewed from the perspective of numismatic evidence’, in Cunliffe, B.W. and Miles, D. (eds), Aspects of the Iron Age in Central Southern Britain, Oxford, 191–204Google Scholar
Sharples, N. 1991: Maiden Castle: Excavations and Field Survey 1985–6, LondonGoogle Scholar
Sim, D., and Ridge, I. 2002: Iron for the Eagles: the Iron Industry in Roman Britain, StroudGoogle Scholar
Skinner, C. 1994: ‘Iron objects’, in Williams, R.J. and Zeepvat, R.J., Bancroft: a Late Bronze Age/Iron Age Settlement, Roman Villa & Temple-Mausoleum, Aylesbury, 322–47Google Scholar
Smith, G. 1991: ‘Excavations at Ham Hill, 1983’, Somerset Archaeology and Natural History 134 (1990), 27–45Google Scholar
Spratling, M. 1979: ‘The debris of metalworking’, in Wainwright, G.W., Gussage All Saints: an Iron Age Settlement in Dorset, London, 125–49Google Scholar
St George Gray, H. 1930: ‘Excavations at Kingsdown Camp, Mells, Somerset, 1927-9’, Archaeologia 80, 59–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stead, I.M. 1984: ‘Iron-Age metalwork from Orton Meadows’, Durobrivae 9, 6–7Google Scholar
Stead, I.M. 1998: The Salisbury Hoard, StroudGoogle Scholar
Stead, I.M., and Rigby, V. 1986: Baldock: The Excavation of a Roman and Pre-Roman Settlement, 1968–72, LondonGoogle Scholar
Trow, S. 1988: ‘Excavations at Ditches hillfort, North Cerney, Gloucestershire, 1982–83’, Trans. Bristol & Glos. Arch. Soc. 106, 19–86Google Scholar
van Driel Murray, C. 1999: ‘And did those feet in ancient times … feet and shoes as a material projection’, in Baker, P., Forcey, C., Jundi, S. and Witcher, R. (eds), TRAC 98: Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference Leicester 1998, Oxford, 131–40Google Scholar
van Enckevort, H.L.H., and Willems, W.J.H. 1996: ‘Roman cavalry helmets in ritual hoards from the Kops Plateau at Nijmegen, The Netherlands’, in Proceedings of the Ninth International Roman Military Equipment Conference, Leiden, 1994 = Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 5, 125–40Google Scholar
Wait, G.A. 1985: Ritual and Religion in Iron Age Britain, BAR, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Webster, J. 1997: ‘Texts, expectations: the archaeology of “Celtic” ritual wells and shafts’, in Gwilt, A. and Haselgrove, C. (eds), Reconstructing Iron Age Societies, Oxford, 134–44Google Scholar
Wheeler, R.E.M. 1943: Maiden Castle, Dorset, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheeler, R.E.M. 1954: The Stanwick Fortifcations, North Riding of Yorkshire, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, R.J., Hart, P.J., and Williams, A.T.L. 1996: Wavendon Gate: a Late Iron Age and Roman Settlement in Milton Keynes, AylesburyGoogle Scholar
Williams, R.J., and Zeepvat, R.J. 1994: Bancroft: a Late Bronze Age/Iron Age Settlement, Roman Villa & Temple-Mausoleum, AylesburyGoogle Scholar
Woodward, A. 1992: Shrines & Sacrifce, LondonGoogle Scholar
Woodward, A., and Leach, P. 1993: The Uley Shrines: Excavation of a Ritual Complex on West Hill, Uley, Gloucestershire: 1977–9, LondonGoogle Scholar
Woodward, P., and Woodward, A. 2004: ‘Dedicating the town: urban foundation deposits in Roman Britain’, World Archaeology 36, 68–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wrathmell, S., and Nicholson, A. 1990: Dalton Parlours: Iron Age Settlement and Roman Villa, Yorkshire Archaeology 3, WakefeldGoogle Scholar