Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T20:31:56.428Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Londinium's Landward Wall: Material Acquisition, Supply and Construction

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 August 2021

Simon J. Barker ,
Kevin Hayward  and
Penny Coombe
Simon J. Barker
Affiliation:
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München [email protected]
Kevin Hayward
Affiliation:
University of Reading [email protected]
Penny Coombe
Affiliation:
School of Archaeology, University of Oxford [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The construction of a free-standing stone wall was a significant occasion in Londinium's history, remarkable for the quantity of masonry used and for the continuing additions to the defences over at least three identifiable phases. Since the local geology in the London Basin does not offer suitable building stone, Londinium's walls offer an exceptional example by which to examine the logistics of construction and the transportation of materials in the context of Romano-British building projects. We examine the sources of the materials used, their transport and the scale of labour and investment involved in the construction of the Landward Wall using an energetics-based methodology. Finally, we provide new insights into Londinium's Landward Wall and the socio-economic and practical implications of its construction. Supplementary material is available online (https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068113X21000088) and comprises technical data related to the architectural energetics.

Keywords

Londiniumurban defencesenergeticslabour coststransportbuilding materials
Type
Articles
Information
Britannia , Volume 52 , November 2021 , pp. 277 - 326
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abrams, E.M. 1984: The Organization of Labor in Late Classic Copan, Honduras: The Energetics of Construction, unpub. PhD thesis, Pennsylvania State UniversityGoogle Scholar
Abrams, E.M. 1989: ‘Architecture and energy: an evolutionary perspective’, Archaeological Method and Theory 1, 47–88Google Scholar
Abrams, E.M., and McCurdy, L. 2019: ‘Massive assumptions and moundbuilders: the history, method, and relevance of architectural energetics’, in McCurdy, L. and Abrams, E. (eds), Architectural Energetics in Archaeology, London, 1–25Google Scholar
Allen, J. 2012: ‘The defences of Venta Silurum (Caerwent): a new analysis of the building programme’, The Monmouthshire Antiquary 28, 3–32Google Scholar
Allen, J. 2013: The Masonry Defences of Roman Silchester (Callvea Atrebatum), North Hampshire, British Archaeological Reports British Series 580, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Allen, J., and Fulford, M. 1999: ‘Fort building and military supply along Britain's eastern Channel and North Sea coasts’, Britannia 30, 163–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J.C. Jnr 1997: Roman Architecture and Society, BaltimoreCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bachrach, B.S. 1984: ‘The cost of castle building: the case of the tower at Langeais, 992–994’, in Reyerson, K.L. and Powe, F. (eds), The Medieval Castle: Romance and Reality, Medieval Studies at Minnesota 1, Dubuque, 47–62Google Scholar
Bachrach, B.S. 2000: ‘Imperial walled cities in the West: an examination of their early medieval Nachleben’, in Tracy, J.D. (ed.), City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective, Cambridge, 192–218Google Scholar
Bachrach, B.S. 2010: ‘The fortifications of Gaul and the economy of the third and fourth centuries’, Journal of Late Antiquity 3.1, 38–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bardill, J. 2004: Brickstamps of Constantinople, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Barker, S.J. 2010: ‘Roman builders: pillagers or salvagers? The economics of destruction and reuse’, in Camporeale, S., Dessales, H. and Pizzo, A. (eds), Arqueología de la construcción 2: los processos constructivos en el mundo romano: Italia y provincias orientales, Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 57, Mérida, 127–42Google Scholar
Barker, S.J. 2011: ‘Nineteenth century labour figures for demolition: a theoretical approach to understanding the economics of re-use’, in Mladenović, D. and Russell, B. (eds), TRAC 2010: Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, Oxford 2010, Oxford, 89–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, S., Coombe, P., and Perna, S. 2018: ‘Re-use of Roman stone in London City walls’, in Coquelet, C., Creemers, G., Dreesen, R. and Goemaere, É. (eds), Roman Ornamental Stones in North-Western Europe: Natural Resources, Manufacturing, Supply, Life and After-life, Études et Documents Archaeologie 38, Namur, 327–48Google Scholar
Barker, S.J., and Russell, B. 2012: ‘Labour figures for Roman stone-working: pitfalls and potential’, in Camporeale, S., Dessales, H. and Pizzo, A. (eds), Archeologia della costruzione 3: les chantiers de construction de l'Italie et des provinces romaines, Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 64, Madrid and Mérida, 83–94Google Scholar
Barresi, P. 2003: Province dell'Asia Minore: costo dei marmi, architettura pubblica e committenza, Studia Archaeologica 125, RomeGoogle Scholar
Bateman, N. 2011: Roman London's Amphitheatre, LondonGoogle Scholar
Bell, W.G., Cottrill, M.A., and Spon, C. (eds) 1937: London Wall through Eighteen Centuries, LondonGoogle Scholar
Bennett, J. 1990: The Setting, Development and Function of the Hadrianic Frontier in Britain, unpub. PhD thesis, Newcastle UniversityGoogle Scholar
Bernard, S. 2018: Building Mid-Republican Rome: Labor, Architecture, and the Urban Economy, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betts, I.M. 1987: ‘Ceramic building material: recent work in London’, Archaeology Today 8, 26–8Google Scholar
Betts, I.M. 1995: ‘Procuratorial tile stamps from London’, Britannia 26, 207–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betts, I.M. 2015: ‘Building material’, in Watson, S. (ed.), Urban Development in the North-West of Londinium: Excavations at 120–122 Cheapside to 14–18 Gresham Street, City of London, 2005–7, London, 67–70Google Scholar
Betts, I.M. 2017: ‘The supply of tile to Roman London’, in Bird, D. (ed.), Agriculture and Industry in South-Eastern Roman Britain, Oxford, 368–83Google Scholar
Blagg, T.F.C. 1976: ‘Tools and techniques of the Roman stonemason in Britain’, Britannia 7, 152–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blagg, T.F.C. 1980: ‘The sculptured stones’, in Hill, C., Millet, M. and Blagg, T.F.C., The Roman Riverside Wall and Monumental Archway in London: Excavations at Baynards Castle, Upper Thames Street, London, 1974–76, London and Middlesex Archaeological Society Special Paper 3, London, 125–93Google Scholar
Blagg, T.F.C. 1984: ‘An examination of the connexions between military and civilian architecture in Roman Britain’, in Blagg, T. and King, A. (eds), Military and Civilian in Roman Britain: Cultural Relationships in a Frontier Province, British Archaeological Reports British Series 136, Oxford, 249–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blagg, T.F.C. 1990a: ‘Architectural munificence in Britain: the evidence of inscriptions’, Britannia 21, 13–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blagg, T.F.C. 1990b: ‘Building stone in Roman Britain’, in Parsons, D. (ed.), Stone: Quarrying and Building in England AD 43–1525, Chichester, 33–50Google Scholar
Blagg, T.F.C. 2002: Roman Architectural Ornamentation in Britain, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blin, S. 2012: ‘Réflexions sur le coût de la décoration en marbre des espaces intérieurs, à partir d'une inscription découverte à Mandeure’, in Camporeale, S., Dessales, H. and Pizzo, A. (eds), Archeologia della costruzione 3: les chantiers de construction de l'Italie et des provinces romaines, Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 64, Madrid and Mérida, 95–104Google Scholar
Bonetto, J., Camporeale, S., and Pizzo, A. (eds) 2014: Arqueología de la construcción 4: las canteras en el mundo antiguo: sistemas de explotación y procesos productivos, Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 69, MéridaGoogle Scholar
Bonetto, J., and Previato, C. 2018: ‘The construction process of the Republican city walls of Aquileia (northeastern Italy): a case study of the quantitative analysis on ancient buildings’, in Brysbaert, A., Kilinkenberg, V., Gutiérrez Garcia-M, A.. and Vikatou, I. (eds), Constructing Monuments, Perceiving Monumentality and the Economics of Building: Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to the Built Environment, Leiden, 309–32Google Scholar
Boon, G.C. 1974: Silchester: The Roman Town of Calleva, Newton AbbotGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J., and Dobson, B. 1976: Hadrian's Wall, LondonGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J., and Dobson, B. 1987: Hadrian's Wall, LondonGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J., and Dobson, B. 2000: Hadrian's Wall, LondonGoogle Scholar
Breeze, D.J., and Hanson, W.S. 2020: The Antonine Wall: Papers in Honour of Professor Lawrence Keppie, Roman Archaeology Series 64, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Brodribb, G. 1969: ‘Stamped tiles of the Classis Britannica’, Sussex Archaeological Collections 107, 102–25Google Scholar
Brodribb, G. 1970: ‘Stamped tiles of the Classis Britannica’, Kent Archaeological Review 21, 25Google Scholar
Brodribb, G. 1980: ‘A further survey of stamped tiles of the Classis Britannica’, Sussex Archaeological Collections 118, 183–96Google Scholar
Brodribb, G. 1987: Roman Brick and Tile, GloucesterGoogle Scholar
Brogiolo, G.P. 2017: ‘Quantificare in architettura: un'intoduzione’, in Brogiolo, G.P., Camporeale, S. and Arnau, A.C. (eds), Costi, tempi e metri cubi: quantificare in architettura: giornata di studi (Padova, 28 ottobre 2016), Archeologia dell'Architettura 22, Sesto Fiorentino, 9–11Google Scholar
Brogiolo, G.P., Camporeale, S., and Arnau, A.C. (eds) 2017: Costi, tempi e metri cubi: quantificare in architettura: giornata di studi (Padova, 28 ottobre 2016), Archeologia dell'Architettura 22, Sesto FiorentinoGoogle Scholar
Brysbaert, A., Kilinkenberg, V., Gutiérrez Garcia-M., A., and Vikatou, I. (eds) 2018: Constructing Monuments, Perceiving Monumentality and the Economics of Building: Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to the Built Environment, LeidenGoogle Scholar
Bukowiecki, E., and Wulf-Rheidt, U. 2015: ‘Trasporto e stoccaggio dei laterizi a Roma: nuove riflessioni in corso’, in Bukowiecki, E., Volpe, R. and Wulf-Rheidt, U. (eds), Il laterizio nei cantieri imperiali Roma e il Mediterraneo: atti del I workshop ‘Laterizio’, Roma, 27–28 novembre 2014, Florence, 45–9Google Scholar
Bushe-Fox, J.P. 1926: First Report on the Excavation of the Roman Fort at Richborough, Kent, Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London 6, LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camporeale, S. 2011: ‘Military building techniques in Mauretania Tingitana: the use of mortar and rubble at Thamusida (Sidi Ali ben Ahmed, Morocco)’, in Ringbom, Å., Hohlfelder, R.L. and Suomen, T. (eds), Building Roma Aeterna: Current Research on Roman Mortar and Concrete: Proceedings of the Conference (Rome, March 27–29, 2008), Helsinki, 169–86Google Scholar
Camporeale, S., DeLaine, J., and Pizzo, A. (eds) 2016: Arqueología de la construcción 5: Man-made Materials, Engineering and Infrastructure: Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on the Archaeology of Roman Construction, Oxford, April 11–12, 2015, Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 77, MadridGoogle Scholar
Camporeale, S., Dessales, H., and Pizzo, A. (eds) 2008: Arqueología de la construcción 1: Italia y las provincias occidentales (Mérida, Instituto de Arqueología, 25–26 de octubre de 2007), Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 50, MeridaGoogle Scholar
Camporeale, S, Dessales, H., and Pizzo, A. (eds) 2010: Arqueología de la construcción 2: los processos constructivos en el mundo romano: Italia y provincias orientales, Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 57, MéridaGoogle Scholar
Camporeale, S., Dessales, H., and Pizzo, A. (eds) 2012: Archeologia della costruzione 3: les chantiers de construction de l'Italie et des provinces romaines, Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 64, Madrid and MéridaGoogle Scholar
Caré, A. 2005: L'ornato architettonic della Basilica di Massenzio, Studia Archaeologica 138, RomeGoogle Scholar
Charola, A.E., and Henriques, F.M. 2000: ‘Hydraulicity in lime mortars revisited’, in Bartosm, P., Groot, C. and Hughes, J.J. (eds), International RILEM Workshop on Historic Mortars: Characteristics and Tests: Paisley, Scotland, 12th – 14th May, 1999, Cachan, 95–104Google Scholar
Cleere, H., and Crossley, D. 1995: The Iron Industry of the Weald, CardiffGoogle Scholar
Cordiner, R., and Brook, A. 2017: Building Stone Atlas of Sussex, WorthingGoogle Scholar
Crow, J. 2006: ‘The northern frontier of Britain from Trajan to Antoninus Pius: Roman builders and native Britons’, in Todd, M. (ed.), A Companion to Roman Britain, London, 114–35Google Scholar
Crowley, N., and Betts, I.M. 1992: ‘Three “Classis Britannica” stamps from London’, Britannia 23, 218–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crummy, P. 1997: City of Victory: The Story of Colchester, Britain's First Roman Town, ColchesterGoogle Scholar
CSIR GB 1.10 = Coombe, P., Grew, F., Hayward, K., and Henig, M. 2015: Corpus Signorum Imperii Romani, Great Britain 1.10: Roman Sculpture from London and the South East, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Curry, D., Adams, C.G., Boulter, M.C., Dilley, F.C., Eames, F.E., Funnell, D.M., and Wells, M.K. 1978: A Correlation of Tertiary Rocks in the British Isles, Special Report of the Geological Society of London 12, OxfordGoogle Scholar
De Kisch, Y. 1979: ‘Tarifs de donations en Gaule romaine d'aprés les inscriptions’, Ktema: Civilisations de l'Orient, de la Gréce et de la Rome Antique 4, 259–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeLaine, J. 1997: The Baths of Caracalla: A Study in the Design, Construction, and Economics of Large-Scale Building Projects in Imperial Rome, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 25, Portsmouth RIGoogle Scholar
DeLaine, J. 2001: ‘Bricks and mortar: exploring the economics of building techniques at Rome and Ostia’, in Mattingly, D.J. and Salmon, J. (eds), Economics beyond Agriculture in the Classical World, Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 9, London and New York, 230–68Google Scholar
DeLaine, J. 2017: ‘Quantifying manpower and the cost of construction in Roman building projects: research perspectives’, in Brogiolo, G.P., Camporeale, S. and Arnau, A.C. (eds), Costi, tempi e metri cubi: quantificare in architettura: giornata di studi (Padova, 28 ottobre 2016), Archeologia dell'Architettura 22, Sesto Fiorentino, 13–20Google Scholar
DeLaine, J. 2018: ‘Economic choice in Roman construction: case studies from Ostia’, in Brysbaert, A., Kilinkenberg, V., Gutiérrez Garcia-M, A.. and Vikatou, I. (eds), Constructing Monuments, Perceiving Monumentality and the Economics of Building: Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to the Built Environment, Leiden, 243–69Google Scholar
Dey, H.W. 2011: The Aurelian Wall and the Refashioning of Imperial Rome AD 271–855, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dimes, F.G. 1980: ‘Petrological report’, in Hill, C., Millet, M. and Blagg, T.F.C., The Roman Riverside Wall and Monumental Archway in London: Excavations at Baynards Castle, Upper Thames Street, London, 1974–76, London and Middlesex Archaeological Society Special Paper 3, London, 198–200Google Scholar
Dines, H.G., Buchan, S., and Bristow, C.R. 1969: Geology of the Country around Sevenoaks and Tonbridge, Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain: Sheet 287 (England and Wales), LondonGoogle Scholar
Domingo, J.Á. 2012a: ‘Los costes de la arquitectura romana: el Capitolio de Volúbilis (Mauretania Tingitana)’, Archeologia Classica 63, 381–418Google Scholar
Domingo, J.Á. 2012b: ‘El coste del mármol: problemas e incertidumbres de una metodología de cálculo’, Marmora 8, 75–91Google Scholar
Domingo, J.Á. 2014: ‘El coste económico de la arquitectura romana: algunos problemas metodológicos’, Martínez, J.M.Á., Basarrate, T.N. and Rodà de Llanza, I. (eds), XVII Congreso Internacional de Arqueologia Clásica: centro y periferia en el mundo clásico, Mérida, 127–30Google Scholar
Domingo, J.Á., and Domingo, J.R. 2017: ‘El coste del Arco de Caracalla en Theveste (Tébessa, Argelia): verificación empírica de una metodología de cálculo’, in Brogiolo, G.P., Camporeale, S. and Arnau, A.C. (eds), Costi, tempi e metri cubi: quantificare in architettura: giornata di studi (Padova, 28 ottobre 2016), Archeologia dell'Architettura 22, Sesto Fiorentino, 35–53Google Scholar
Duncan-Jones, R.P. 1982: The Economy of the Roman Empire, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Duncan-Jones, R.P. 1985: ‘Who paid for public buildings in Roman cities?’, in Grew, F. and Hobley, B. (eds), Roman Urban Topography in Britain and the Western Empire, London, 28–33Google Scholar
Duncan-Jones, R. 1994: Money and Government in the Roman Empire, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dura P.R. 6 = Rostovtzeff, M.I., Brown, F.E., and Welles, C.B. (eds) 1936: The Excavations at Dura-Europos Conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters: Preliminary Report on the Sixth Season of Work, 1932–1933, New HavenGoogle Scholar
Dura P.R. 7/8 = Rostovtzeff, M.I., Brown, F.E., and Welles, C.B. (eds) 1936: The Excavations at Dura-Europos Conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters: Preliminary Report on the Seventh and Eighth Seasons of Work, 1933–1934 and 1934–1935, New HavenGoogle Scholar
Elliott, S. 2011: The Medway Formula, unpub. MA thesis, University College LondonGoogle Scholar
Elliott, S. 2014: ‘The Medway formula: a search for evidence that the Roman authorities improved the river's navigability to facilitate their extensive ragstone quarry industry’, Archaeologia Cantiana 135, 251–60Google Scholar
Elliott, S. 2016: Change and Continuity in the Exploitation of Natural Resources (Such as Stone, Iron, Clay and Wood) in Kent during the Roman Occupation, unpub. PhD thesis, University of KentGoogle Scholar
Elliott, S. 2017: Empire State: How the Roman Military Built an Empire, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Elliott, S. 2018: Ragstone to Riches: Imperial Estates, Metalla and the Roman Military in the South East of Britain during the Occupation, British Archaeological Reports British Series 638, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Esmonde Cleary, S. 2003: ‘Civic defences in the west under the high Empire’, in Wilson, P. (ed.), The Archaeology of Roman Towns: Studies in Honour of J.S. Wacher, Oxford, 72–85Google Scholar
Esmonde Cleary, S. 2007: ‘Fortificación en la Britannia Romana: ¿defense military o monument cívico?’, in Rodríguez Colmenero, A. and Rodá de Llanze, I. (eds), Murallas de ciudades en el occidente del impero romano: Lucus Augusti como paradigma, Lugo, 155–65Google Scholar
Esmonde Cleary, S. 2013: The Roman West, AD 200–500: An Archaeological Study, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esmonde Cleary, S. 2019: ‘Fortifications et paysages urbains en Bretagne insulaire au Bas-Empire’, in Bayard, D. and Fourdrin, J.-P. (eds), Villes et fortifications de l'antiquité tardive dans le nord de la Gaule, Revue du Nord, Hors série, Collection Art et Archéologie 26, Lille, 75–90Google Scholar
Esmonde Cleary, S. 2020: ‘Urban defences in late Roman Gaul: civic monuments or state installations?’, in Intagliata, E.E., Couralt, C. and Barker, S.J. (eds), City Walls in Late Antiquity: An Empire Wide Perspective, Oxford, 27–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esmonde Cleary, S., and Wood, J. 2006: Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges 3: le rempart de l'antiquité tardive de la ville haute, Études d'archéologie urbaine, PessacGoogle Scholar
Etienne, R., and Barrère, P. 1962: Bordeaux antique, BordeauxGoogle Scholar
Evans, E. 1994: ‘Military architects and building design in Roman Britain’, Britannia 25, 143–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Féraud, L.-C. 1877: Histoire des villes de la province de Constantine et documents pour servir à l'histoire des anciennes concessions françaises d'Afrique, AlgiersGoogle Scholar
Flügel, C., and Obmann, J. 2020: ‘The power of vivid images in Antonine Wall reconstructions: re-examining the archaeological evidence’, in Breeze, D.J. and Hanson, W.S. (eds), The Antonine Wall: Papers in Honour of Professor Lawrence Keppie, Roman Archaeology Series 64, Oxford, 420–31Google Scholar
Frere, S.S. 1987: Britannia: A History of Roman Britain, LondonGoogle Scholar
Frézouls, E. 1984: ‘Evergétisme et construction urbaine dans les Trois Gaules et les Germanies’, Revue du Nord 66, 27–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulford, M., and Corney, M. 1984: Silchester: Excavations on the Defences 1974–80, Britannia Monograph 5, LondonGoogle Scholar
Garmy, P., and Maurin, L. (eds) 1996: Enceintes romaines d'Aquitaine: Bordeaux, Dax, Périgueux, Bazas, ParisCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gechter, M. 1985: ‘Ausgrabungen in Bonn in den Jahren 1983/84’, in Bauchhenss, G., Ausgrabungen im Rheinland 1983/1984, Bonn, 121–9Google Scholar
Goodburn, D. 1991: ‘A Roman timber framed building tradition’, Archaeological Journal 148.1, 182–204CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenhalgh, M. 2014: The Military and Colonial Destruction of the Roman Landscape of North Africa, 1830–1900, LeidenCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, J. 2014: ‘With criminal intent? Forgers at work in Roman London’, Britannia 45, 165–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, J., and Merrifield, R. 1986: Roman London, LondonGoogle Scholar
Hanson, W.S. 1978: ‘The organisation of Roman military timber-supply’, Britannia 9, 293–305CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hassall, M. 1973: ‘Roman soldiers in Roman London’, in Strong, D.E. (ed.), Archaeological Theory and Practice: Essays Presented to Professor William Francis Grimes, London, 231–7Google Scholar
Hassall, M. 2000: ‘London: the Roman city’, in Haynes, I., Sheldon, H. and Harrington, L. (eds), London Underground: The Archaeology of a City, Oxford, 52–61Google Scholar
Hayward, K. 2006: ‘A geological link between the Facilis monument at Colchester and first-century army tombstones from the Rhineland frontier’, Britannia 37, 359–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayward, K.M.J. 2009: Roman Quarrying and Stone Supply on the Periphery: Southern England: A Geological Study of First Century Funerary Monuments and Monumental Architecture, British Archaeological Reports British Series 500, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayward, K.M.J. 2015: ‘Types and sources of stone’, in Coombe, P.C., Grew, F., Hayward, K.M.J. and Henig, M., Corpus Signorum Imperii Romani, Great Britain 1.10: Roman Sculpture from London and the South East, Oxford, xxxiv–xlviGoogle Scholar
Hayward, K.M.J. 2018: ‘The geological source of the earliest tombstones and architectural fragments from southern Britannia: a petrological and geochemical investigation of stone from pre-Flavian Colchester’, in Coquelet, C., Creemers, G., Dreesen, R. and Goemaere, É. (eds), Roman Ornamental Stones in North-Western Europe: Natural Resources, Manufacturing, Supply, Life and After-life, Études et Documents Archaeologie 38, Namur, 93–106Google Scholar
Hayward, K.M.J., and Roberts, G. 2020: ‘Defending Londinium and the Tower: the raw materials: a petrological re-evaluation of the fabric of the Wardrobe Tower (TOL164) and Roman defensive structures at the Tower of London’, Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society 70, 105–28Google Scholar
Hill, P.R. 2004: The Construction of Hadrian's Wall, British Archaeological Reports British Series 375, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, P.R. 2010: The Construction of Hadrian's Wall, StroudGoogle Scholar
Hingley, R. 2012: Hadrian's Wall: A Life, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hingley, R. 2018: Londinium: A Biography: Roman London from its Origins to the Fifth Century, LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobley, B. 1971: ‘An experimental reconstruction of a Roman military turf rampart’, in Applebaum, S. (ed.), Roman Frontier Studies 1967: The Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress Held at Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv, 21–33Google Scholar
Hobley, B. 1983: ‘Roman urban defences: a review of research in Britain’, in Maloney, J. and Hobley, B. (eds), Roman Urban Defences in the West, Council for British Archaeology Research Report 51, London, 78–84Google Scholar
Hodgson, N. 2017: Hadrian's Wall: Archaeology and History at the Limit of Rome's Empire, LondonGoogle Scholar
Holder, N. 2007: ‘Mapping the Roman inscriptions of London’, Britannia 38, 13–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Honeyborne, D.B. 1982: The Building Limestones of France, Building Research Establishment Report, LondonGoogle Scholar
Hunt, G. 2010: ‘Along the eastern defences: excavations at 8–14 Cooper's Row and 1 America Square in the City of London, EC3’, Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society 61, 41–80Google Scholar
Hurst, H. 1986: Gloucester, the Roman and Later Defences: Excavations on the E Defences and a Reassessment of the Defensive Sequence, Gloucester Archaeological Reports 2, GloucesterGoogle Scholar
Hurst, J.T. 1865: A Handbook of Formulae, Tables and Memoranda for Architectural Surveyors and Others Engaged in Building, LondonGoogle Scholar
IDR = Russu, I.I. et al. (eds) 1975–: Inscriptiones Daciae Romanae, BucharestGoogle Scholar
ILTG = Wuilleumier, P. 1963: Inscriptions Latines des trois Gaules, ParisGoogle Scholar
Johnson, S. 1983a: Late Roman Fortifications, LondonGoogle Scholar
Johnson, S. 1983b: ‘Late Roman urban defences in Europe’, in Maloney, J. and Hobley, B. (eds), Roman Urban Defences in the West, Council for British Archaeology Research Report 51, London, 69–76Google Scholar
Jones, B., and Mattingly, D. 1990: An Atlas of Roman Britain, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Jones, M.J. 1983: ‘Coloniae in Britain’, in Maloney, J. and Hobley, B. (eds), Roman Urban Defences in the West, Council for British Archaeology Research Report 51, London, 90–5Google Scholar
Jones, M.J. 2002: Roman Lincoln: Conquest, Colony and Capital, StroudGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, M. 1996: ‘Die Ziegelstempel der römischen Garnisonen von Bonn’, Bonner Jahrbücher des Rheinischen Landesmuseums in Bonn 196, 51–160Google Scholar
Kendal, R. 1996: ‘Transport logistics associated with the building of Hadrian's Wall’, Britannia 27, 129–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Konen, H.C. 2000: Classis Germanica: die römische Rheinflotte im 1.–3. Jahrhundert n.Chr, St KatharinenGoogle Scholar
Lander, J. 1984: Roman Stone Fortifications: Variation and Change from the First Century A.D. to the Fourth, British Archaeological Reports International Series 206, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laurence, R., Esmonde Cleary, S., and Seers, G. 2011: The City in the Roman West, c. 250 BC–c. AD 250, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leary, E. 1989: The Building Limestones of the British Isles, Building Research Establishment Report, LondonGoogle Scholar
Lebek, W.D. 1995: ‘Die Landmauer von Konstantinopel und ein neues Bauepigramm’, Epigraphica Anatolica 25, 107–53Google Scholar
LeQuesne, C., Blagg, T., Wait, G., Carrington, P. 1999: Excavations at Chester: The Roman and Later Defences, ChesterGoogle Scholar
Ling, R. 1985: ‘The mechanics of the building trade’, in Grew, F. and Hobley, B. (eds), Roman Urban Topography in Britain and the Western Empire: Proceedings of the Third Conference on Urban Archaeology Organized Jointly by the Council for British Archaeology and the Department of Urban Archaeology of the Museum of London, Council for British Archaeology Research Report 59, London, 14–27Google Scholar
Lyon, J. 2007: Within these Walls: Roman and Medieval Defences North of Newgate at the Merrill Lynch Financial Centre, City of London, LondonGoogle Scholar
MacMullen, R. 1959: ‘Roman imperial building in the provinces’, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 64, 207–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacMullen, R. 1963: Soldier and Civilian in the Late Roman Empire, Cambridge MAGoogle Scholar
Maloney, J. 1979: ‘The excavations at Duke's Place: the Roman defences’, The London Archaeologist 3.11, 292–7Google Scholar
Maloney, J. 1983: ‘Recent work on London's defences’, in Maloney, J. and Hobley, B. (eds), Roman Urban Defences in the West, Council for British Archaeology Research Report 51, London, 96–117Google Scholar
Mar, R., and Pensabene, P. 2010: ‘Finanziamento dell'edilizia pubblica e calculo dei costi dei materiali lapidei: il caso del foro superior di Tarraco’, in Camporeale, S., Dessales, H. and Pizzo, A. (eds), Arqueología de la construcción 2: los processos constructivos en el mundo romano: Italia y provincias orientales, Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 57, Mérida, 509–37Google Scholar
Marsden, P. 1969: ‘The Roman pottery industry of London’, Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society 22.2, 39–44Google Scholar
Marsden, P. 1970: ‘Archaeological finds in the City of London 1966–9’, Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society 22.3, 2–6Google Scholar
Marsden, P. 1980: Roman London, LondonGoogle Scholar
Marsden, P. 1987: The Roman Forum Site in London: Discoveries before 1985, LondonGoogle Scholar
Marsden, P. 1994: Ships of the Port of London: First to Eleventh Centuries AD, English Heritage Publication 3, LondonGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, D. 2006: An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC – AD 409, LondonGoogle Scholar
McWhirr, A., and Viner, D. 1978: ‘The production and distribution of tiles in Roman Britain with particular reference to the Cirencester region’, Britannia 9, 359–77Google Scholar
Merrifield, R. 1965: The Roman City of London, LondonGoogle Scholar
Merrifield, R. 1983: London: City of the Romans, LondonGoogle Scholar
Mills, P. 2013: ‘The supply and distribution of ceramic building material in Roman Britain’, Field Methods and Techniques in Late Antique Archaeology 10, 437–70Google Scholar
Milne, G. 1995: Roman London, LondonGoogle Scholar
Milne, G. 2000: ‘A Roman provincial fleet: the Classis Britannica reconsidered’, in Oliver, G., Brock, R., Cornell, T. and Hodgkinson, S. (eds), The Sea in Antiquity, Oxford, 121–31Google Scholar
Milner, N.P. (tr.) 1996: Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, Translated Texts for Historians 16, LiverpoolGoogle Scholar
MOLA 2011: Londinium: A New Map and Guide to Roman London, LondonGoogle Scholar
O'Donnell, K. 2020: ‘The quarries of Hadrian's Wall: labour costs and material requirements’, in Courault, C. and Moreno, C.M. (eds), Quantitative Studies and Production Cost of Roman Public Construction, Cordoba, 333–60Google Scholar
Parfitt, K. 2013: ‘Folkestone during the Roman period’, in Coulson, I. (ed.), Folkestone to 1500: A Town Unearthed, Canterbury, 31–54Google Scholar
Parfitt, K., and Philp, B. 1981: ‘Building materials’, in Philp, B. (ed.), The Excavations of the Roman Forts of the Classis Britannica at Dover, 1970–1977, Dover, 175–6Google Scholar
Pearson, A. 1995: Building Anderita: The Construction of the Roman Shore Fort at Pevensey, unpub. MA thesis, University of ReadingGoogle Scholar
Pearson, A. 1999: ‘Building Anderita: late Roman coastal defences and the construction of the Saxon Shore fort at Pevensey’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 18.1, 95–117CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, A. 2002: ‘Stone supply to the Saxon Shore forts at Reculver, Richborough, Dover and Lympne’, Archaeologia Cantiana 122, 197–220Google Scholar
Pearson, A. 2003: The Construction of the Saxon Shore Forts, British Archaeological Reports British Series 349, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, A. 2006: The Work of Giants: Stone and Quarrying in Roman Britain, StroudGoogle Scholar
Pegoretti, G. 1863: Manuale pratico per l'estimazione dei lavori architettonici, stradali, idraulici e di fortificazione per uso degli ingegneri ed architetti 1, Biblioteca Scelta dell'Ingegnere Civile 28, MilanGoogle Scholar
Pegoretti, G. 1864: Manuale pratico per l'estimazione dei lavori architettonici, stradali, idraulici e di fortificazione per uso degli ingegneri ed architetti 2, Biblioteca Scelta dell'Ingegnere Civile 29, MilanGoogle Scholar
Pegoretti, G. (revised by Cantalupi, A.) 1869: Manuale pratico per l'estimazione dei lavori architettonici, stradali, idraulici e di fortificazione per uso degli ingegneri ed architetti (2 vols), MilanGoogle Scholar
Pensabene, P., and Domingo, J.Á. 2016: ‘Un tentativo di calcolo dei costi delle colonne della basilica costantiniana di San Pietro a Roma’, Acta XVI Congressvs Internationalis Archaeologiae Christianae (Roma 2013), Vatican City, 2347–72Google Scholar
Pensabene, P., and Domingo, J.Á. 2017: ‘Foro Traiano: il cantiere, l'approvvigionamento dei marmi, il trasporto e i costi dei grandi monoliti in granito del Foro e in Sienite’, Rendiconti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia 89, 523–97Google Scholar
Pensabene, P., Mar, R., and Cebrián, R. 2012: ‘Funding of public buildings and calculations of the costs of the stone materials: the case of the Forum of Segobriga (Cuenca, Spain)’, in Gutiérrez Garcia-Moreno, A., Lapuente Mercadal, P. and Rodà De Llanza, I. (eds), Interdisciplinary Studies on Ancient Stone: Proceedings of the IX Association for the Study of Marbles and Other Stones in Antiquity (ASMOSIA) Conference (Tarragona 2009), Tarragona, 161–75Google Scholar
Perring, D. 1991: Roman London, LondonGoogle Scholar
Perring, D. 2017: ‘London's Hadrianic war?’, Britannia 48, 37–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peveler, E. 2016: ‘Reassessing Roman ceramic building materials: economics, logistics and social factors in the supply of tile to Dorchester on Thames, Oxfordshire’, Arqueología de la Arquitectura 13.e046, https://doi.org/10.3989/arq.arqt.2016.164 (accessed April 2021)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pferdehirt, B. 1995: Das Museum für antike Schiffahrt 1, MainzGoogle Scholar
Pollard, N. 2000: Soldiers, Cities, and Civilians in Roman Syria, Ann ArborCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, J., and Hayward, K.M.J. 2006: Petrological Report on the Roman Stone Blocks from The Guild of Barbers’ Gardens, London Wall, opposite the Museum of London, unpub. report, petrological report for the Museum of London's Archaeological Archive and Research CentreGoogle Scholar
Precht, G. 1983: ‘The town walls and defensive systems of Xanten: Colonia Ulpia Traiana’, in Maloney, J. and Hobley, B. (eds), Roman Urban Defences in the West, Council for British Archaeology Research Report 51, London, 29–39Google Scholar
Rayment, D.L., and Pettifer, K. 1987: ‘Examination of durable mortar from Hadrian's Wall’, Materials Science and Technology 3.12, 997–1004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RCHM 1928 = 1928: Roman London, Royal Commission on Historical Monuments 3, LondonGoogle Scholar
Richmond, I.A. 1930: The City Wall of Imperial Rome: An Account of its Architectural Development from Aurelian to Narses, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Romankiewicz, T., Milek, K., Beckett, C., Russell, B., and Snyder, J.R. 2020: ‘New perspectives on the structure of the Antonine Wall’, in Breeze, D.J. and Hanson, W.S. (eds), The Antonine Wall: Papers in Honour of Professor Lawrence Keppie, Roman Archaeology Series 64, Oxford, 121–41Google Scholar
Rowsome, P. 1996: The Billingsgate Roman House and Baths: Conservation and Assessment, LondonGoogle Scholar
Rummel, C. 2008: The Fleets on the Northern Frontier of the Roman Empire from the 1st to 3rd Century, unpub. PhD thesis, University of NottinghamGoogle Scholar
Sheldon, H., and Tyers, I. 1983: ‘Recent dendrochronological work in Southwark and its implications’, London Archaeologist 4.13, 355–61Google Scholar
Shirley, E.A.M. 1996: ‘Building of the legionary fortress at Inchtuthil’, Britannia 27, 111–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shirley, E.A.M. 2000: The Construction of the Roman Legionary Fortress at Inchtuthil, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, J.R. 2019: ‘Bricks in the wall: an examination of brick procurement in fifth-century Ravenna’, in Cirelli, E., Giorgi, E. and Lepore, G. (eds), Economia e territorio: l'Adriatico centrale tra tarda antichità e alto medioevo, Oxford, 83–9Google Scholar
Snyder, J.R., Russell, B., Romankiewicz, T., and Beckett, C.T.S. forthcoming: ‘The energetics of earth and turf construction in the Roman world’, in Courault, C., Maschek, D., Domingo, J.A. and Barker, S. (eds), From Concept to Monument: New Research on Architectural Energetics in Antiquity: Papers in Honour of Janet DeLaine, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Speed, G. 2014: Towns in the Dark? Urban Transformations from Late Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strickland, T. 1999: Archaeological Survey and Condition Assessment of the Roman Wall, 8—10 Coopers Row, London, unpub. report, Gifford and Partners, LondonGoogle Scholar
Strong, D.E. 1968: ‘The monument’, in Cunliffe, B.W. (ed.), Fifth Report on the Excavation of the Roman Fort at Richborough, Kent, Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London 23, London, 40–73Google Scholar
Swain, H., and Williams, T. 2008: ‘The population of Roman London’, in Clark, J., Cotton, J., Hall, J., Sherris, R. and Swain, H. (eds), Londinium and Beyond: Essays on Roman London and its Hinterland for Harvey Sheldon, Council for British Archaeology Research Report 156, York, 33–40Google Scholar
Tab. Vindol. = Bowman, A.K., and Thomas, J.D. (eds) 1983–: The Vindolanda Writing Tablets, London. See also Vindolanda Tablets Online, http://vindolanda.csad.ox.ac.uk/ (accessed April 2021)Google Scholar
Volpe, R. 2014: ‘Dalle cave della Via Tiberina alle mura repubblicane di Roma’, in Bonetto, J., Camporeale, S. and Pizzo, A. (eds), Arqueología de la construcción 4: las canteras en el mundo antiguo: sistemas de explotación y procesos productivos, Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueología 69, Mérida, 59–71Google Scholar
Warry, P. 2006: Tegulae: Manufacture, Typology and Use in Roman Britain, OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warry, P. 2010: ‘Legionary tile production in Britain’, Britannia 41, 127–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warry, P. 2012: ‘The Silchester tile industry’, in Fulford, M. (ed.), Silchester and the Study of Romano-British Urbanism, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 90, Portsmouth RI, 49–76Google Scholar
Watson, S., and Heard, K. 2006: Development on Roman London's Western Hill: Excavations at Paternoster Square, City of London, Museum of London Archaeology Service Monograph 32, LondonGoogle Scholar
Westman, A. 2012: Chichester City Walls, LondonGoogle Scholar
Williams, T. 1993: Public Buildings in the South West Quarter of Roman London, Archaeology of Roman London 3, Council for British Archaeology Research Report 88, LondonGoogle Scholar
Witschel, C. 2013: ‘Die spätantiken Städte Galliens: Transformationen von Stadtbildern als Ausdruck einer gewandelten Identität?’, in Diefenbach, S. and Müller, G.M. (eds), Gallien in Spätantike und Frühmittelalter: Kulturgeschichte einer Region, Millenium-Studien 43, Berlin, 153–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worssam, B.C. 1963: Geology of the Country around Maidstone, Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain: Sheet 288 (England and Wales), LondonGoogle Scholar
Worssam, B.C., and Tatton-Brown, T.W.T. 1990: ‘The stone of the Reculver columns and the Reculver cross’, in Parsons, D. (ed.), Stone: Quarrying and Building in England AD 43–1525, Chichester, 51–69Google Scholar
Wright, R.P. 1976: ‘Tile-stamps of the Sixth Legion found in Britain’, Britannia 7, 224–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, R.P. 1978: ‘Tile-stamps of the Ninth Legion found in Britain’, Britannia 9, 379–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, R.P. 1985: ‘Official tile-stamps from London which cite the province of Britain’, Britannia 16, 193–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yule, B. 2005: A Prestigious Roman Building Complex on the Southwark Waterfront: Excavations at Winchester Palace, 1983–90, Museum of London Archaeology Service Monograph 23, LondonGoogle Scholar
Yule, B., and Rankov, N.B. 1998: ‘Legionary soldiers in third-century Southwark’, in Watson, S. (ed.), Roman London: Recent Archaeological Work, Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 24, Portsmouth RI, 67–77Google Scholar
Supplementary material: PDF

Barker et al. supplementary material

Barker et al. supplementary material

Download Barker et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 294.7 KB