Biogeographical endemism and habitat restriction are two easily measured quantities that can be used as indicators of species' ecological restrictions. We analysed and compared these two types of information from available literature sources in an attempt to identify all bird species critically dependent on tropical deciduous forests of western Mexico and Central America. Based on patterns of biogeographical restriction, we identified 42 endemics, 33 disjunct endemics, 59 corridor species and 3 seasonal endemics associated with tropical deciduous forest (TDF) in this region. Based on patterns of habitat use in these species, we classified them as 50 tropical deciduous forest-restricted species and 82 apparent habitat generalist species. No habitat use information was available within the TDF belt for five of the biogeographically restricted species. We found a high proportion of apparent habitat generalists (60%) among biogeographically restricted species. We discuss three specific scenarios in which species critically dependent on TDF may nonetheless appear generalized in their patterns of habitat use. These species are termed “cryptic habitat specialists.” The proportion of apparent habitat generalists is highly variable among biogeographical regions and habitat types. Thus, global biodiversity conservation prioritizations that rely on habitat restriction as an indicator of ecological sensitivity may underestimate conservation needs within bioregions that contain high proportions of cryptic habitat specialists.

The killing of birds for scientific reference causes debate and dispute whose intensity is in inverse proportion to its relevance as a conservation issue, with similar degrees of heat being generated only by such momentous things as the standardization of vernacular bird names. Doubtless this is because these are seemingly simple, black-and-white issues over which many people feel they have sufficient personal clarity and power to achieve a resolution. Really important matters – global warming, intransigent debt arrangements for developing nations, exponential human population growth, obliteration of habitats for short-term human gain, scandalous abuses of biocide in agriculture, saturation-level corruption and incompetence in state conservation agencies, all of which are poised to degrade the ornithological environment beyond recognition – belong to another dimension altogether in which most of us are simply sleepwalking towards doomsday. It is important, then, to get the collecting issue into reasonable perspective as soon as humanly possible.

We examined the influence of fruit availability and habitat disturbance, including past and recent forest fires, on an assemblage of hornbills over a four-month period in the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra. The assemblage is dominated by Wreathed Hornbills Aceros undulatus (7.5 birds/km2), followed by Bushy-crested Hornbills Anorrhinus galeritus (3.05 birds/km2), Rhinoceros Hornbills Buceros rhinoceros (2.6 birds/km2), and Helmeted Hornbills Buceros vigil (1.9 birds/km2). Overall densities for each species were consistent with estimates from other South-East Asian sites but densities varied temporally and spatially, even for territorial species. We speculate that Rhinoceros and Helmeted Hornbills may exhibit facultative territoriality or they may not be territorial at this site. We found a positive relationship between temporal variability in hornbill numbers and the availability of ripe fruits. All hornbills, especially Rhinoceros and Bushy-crested Hornbills, tended to avoid highly disturbed areas; these areas had a lower than expected number of fruiting trees in five important hornbill diet families. Densities of Bushy-Crested, Rhinoceros, and Helmeted Hornbills declined from 28 to 63% in the post-burn surveys. Wreathed Hornbills, however, increased slightly in the post-burn surveys, possibly because they were nesting there at the time. Movement of hornbills between disturbed and primary forest habitat may enhance regeneration of disturbed areas if hornbills are transporting viable seeds.

We report the rediscovery of the Cherry-throated Tanager Nemosia rourei in southern Espírito Santo, Brazil, in February 1998, and the first substantive observations of its behaviour, vocalizations and other aspects of its natural history. Approximately 10 individuals, occasionally in groups of up to five birds, were located in humid montane forest at 1,100 m a.s.l. at the privately owned “Fazenda Pindobas IV” (20°19′S, 41°17′W). This small population appears to be safe, as the property owners are preserving the remaining native forest there, and hope soon to register the land as a Private Natural Heritage Reserve (RPPN). The species probably also occurs at similar elevations on neighbouring fazendas. Past reports of the species are reviewed, and the accuracy of the type locality, “Muriaé, Minas Gerais” is re-evaluated. As a result, we suggest that our locality of rediscovery, Jatibocas, where Helmut Sick surely saw a group of eight birds in August 1941, and the Nova Lombardia (= Augusto Ruschi) Biological Reserve, where a single individual was certainly sighted by Derek Scott and others in October 1995, all in south-central Espírito Santo, be considered the only confirmed points of occurrence of the Cherry-throated Tanager.

It is known that White Eared-pheasants Crossoptilon crossoptilon drouyni interbreed widely with Tibetan Eared-pheasants C. harmani at the boundary of their ranges. A new hybrid zone has been found recently in eastern Tibet, far away from the boundary of the parental species' ranges. Based on ecological observations of eared-pheasants and the geographical history and pattern of modern glaciers, we have attributed the complex morphological variation of eared-pheasants and the high biodiversity of the eastern Qinghai-Tibet plateau to its varied geography.

Monitoring of nests of the Visayan Tarictic Hornbill Penelopides panini panini on the Philippine island of Panay revealed thus far undescribed information on the breeding biology of this species. Females occupied nest holes in March–April, after which two or three eggs are laid. Although cooperative breeding is suspected for the genus, at two nests no helpers were recorded. Nest-concealment behaviour was observed in the adult male. After a nestling period of 55–58 days, the adult female and one juvenile left the nest simultaneously. Immature birds resemble their respective sex. Nest site characteristics of 24 nests of the Tarictic Hornbill and two of the Writhed-billed Hornbill Aceros waldeni, respectively, were recorded on Mt Balabag, Panay Mountain Range. Tarictic Hornbill nests were situated in living as well as dead trees, at an average height of 11 m. Cavity compass direction was uniformly distributed around the circle. Nests are aggregated within the habitat, with a mean nearest-neighbour distance of 190 m. Writhed-billed Hornbills may require larger trees for nesting than Tarictic Hornbills. Nest density was calculated to be around three Tarictic Hornbill nests and 0.2–0.3 Writhed-billed Hornbill nests per square kilometre. Given a total amount of suitable hornbill habitat on Panay of 225–450 km2, about 750–1,000 Tarictic Hornbill breeding pairs and 60-100 Writhed-billed Hornbill breeding pairs may remain on Panay.

The Hadejia-Nguru wetlands in north-east Nigeria are of international importance for resident and migratory Anatidae but the construction of large dams upstream seriously threatens their continued existence. An analysis of waterfowl census data collected over the period 1988 to 1998 inclusive demonstrated that the extent of flooding had no effect on the species richness of waterfowl but had a significant impact on total numbers. White-faced Whistling Duck Dendrocygna viduata and Garganey Anas querquedula in particular respond to changes in flood extent. The present practice of releasing water from upstream reservoirs should therefore be continued.

We assessed the impact of forest fire on the nesting success of the endemic Red-knobbed Hornbill Aceros cassidix in north Sulawesi, Indonesia. Pre- and post-fire breeding activity was monitored at 60 nest trees. Low rainfall and possible reductions in fruit abundance did not appear to have an effect on initial nest uptake or on subsequent chick production at non-burnt nests, which were comparable to previous years. However, there was an adverse effect on productivity at nests that directly experienced fire and the accompanying heat and smoke in the vicinity, resulting in a post-fire nest success (62%) that was significantly lower than in previous years (78.6–80%). Population recruitment dropped by an estimated 47% to 0.17 fledglings/breeding pair. Our data suggest that, given the reproductive profile of this species and the ability of fire to reinforce its own negative effects on forest habitats, Red-knobbed Hornbill populations may be vulnerable to the potential effects of repeated fires.

The controversy that presently surrounds the taxonomy of the Orange-fronted Cyanoramphus malherbi and Forbes' C. forbesi Parakeets has important implications for the conservation of both birds. Both taxa are critically endangered, but consensus regarding their specific status has not yet been achieved. We present mitochondrial DNA sequences for the cytochrome b gene and the control region from 17 Cyanoramphus parakeets representing nine populations and six taxa together with field observations of courtship and breeding behaviour in a sympatric population of Orange-fronted and Yellow-crowned Parakeets C. auriceps. Field data support species status of the Orange-fronted Parakeet under the Biological Species Concept. Phylogenetic analyses of our DNA sequence data support earlier hypotheses based on allozyme data that both Orange-fronted and Forbes' Parakeets represent distinct species under four species concepts and indicate that high conservation priority is warranted for both taxa.

In a recent study, O'Brien et al. (1998a) sought to provide a better understanding of the distribution and status of the Bornean Peacock-pheasant Polyplectron schleiermacheri in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, based on an analysis of questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with local inhabitants. This was the first scientific contribution concerning this species after the launch of the Conservation Action Plan for Pheasants (McGowan and Garson 1995). Although the authors of this study acknowledged and discussed the limitations of the questionnaire approach and some of the anomalies in the replies they received, we still feel that the questions posed in this survey may have been phrased in such a way as to invite slight biases in the answers, and that some of the analyses of the replies may have created further biases. We therefore feel it may be helpful to review these uncertain areas in order to help improve questionnaire surveys in future fieldwork. Two of us (I.S. and A.P.S.) helped conduct the surveys in question, and all of us have experience of galliforms in Kalimantan.

We occasionally refer to additional information concerning the survey which was presented in another publication (O'Brien et al. 1998b).

This study investigated the distribution and habitat selection of the globally threatened East Coast Akalat Sheppardia gunningi sokokensis in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, the Shimba Hills (both Kenya) and the lowland East Usambara Mountains (Tanzania). The species is more abundant than originally thought. In Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, akalats occur in two of the main vegetation types, and an estimated 7,500–9,000 territories represent one of the largest populations of this species in the world. Akalats occurred at similar densities to those in Arabuko-Sokoke (c. 0.5 pairs/ha) in parts of Shimba Hills and East Usambaras, but were more patchily distributed. This akalat prefers areas where the undergrowth is partially open with large amounts of dead wood. It forages on or near the ground. In Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, areas where akalats were present had a higher abundance of ground-dwelling arthropods than areas where they were not. The akalat inhabits both primary forest and regenerated areas that have been selectively logged probably more than 20 years ago. Despite its relatively high densities where it occurs, this species (like other threatened birds in the East African coastal forests) is very patchily distributed and dependent on a habitat that is now highly fragmented and under considerable human pressure. The conservation situation in Arabuko-Sokoke gives cause for concern, and the destructive effects of a large elephant population threaten the forests of the Shimba Hills. The conservation status of the lowland Usambara Mountains is probably better and more stable.

The Orange-breasted Falcon Falco deiroleucus, among the world's most poorly known falcons, is sparsely distributed in Neotropical forests from south-east Mexico or Guatemala to Paraguay and northern Argentina. Details of distribution and population size are poorly known throughout the species's range. From 1992 to 1997 we studied this species at 19 nest sites in Guatemala and Belize. Occupancy and productivity rates remained stable for this northernmost population over this six-year period. Sparse data on historical distribution preclude a full assessment of possible changes in population status in the Mesoamerican portion of the species's range. Today the species appears restricted to forested areas in conjunction with large nesting cliffs. No breeding record is known for any Mesoamerican nation except Belize and Guatemala. Mean number of fledglings per successful nesting was significantly higher in areas of predominantly forested mosaic habitat (2.11, n = 18) than at sites with uninterrupted mature forest (1.36, n = 11); proportion of sites occupied and of pairs fledging young did not differ between these two habitats. Based on historical and current distribution records and distribution of potential nesting habitat, we conclude that the Guatemala/Belize opulation of Orange-breasted Falcons is disjunct from the species's main range in South America, is perhaps the only local population (at best one of a small number) in Mesoamerica, and is tightly linked to the existence of suitable nesting cliffs combined with large forested areas.

A rocky area in Lamto, Ivory Coast, which is partly surrounded by plantations, was searched for nests of the White-necked Picathartes Picathartes gymnocephala. A total of 34 nests was found of which 10 were only remnants, 12 old and 12 rather new. One nest contained two chicks. It is suggested that ecotourism might be a suitable means to help to protect the species, but care has to be taken to avoid any further disturbance.

We thank Sözer et al. (2000) for paying such close attention to our paper and taking the time to express their opinion so extensively. Sözer et al. express the opinion that our questionnaire and treatment of the data were biased. They objected to our request for assistance that accompanied the questionnaire, the use of pictures of unequal size, the wording of most questions, and what they considered a flawed semi-structured interview. Finally, they question the ability of the Kalimantan people to comprehend the interview process and respond accurately. They conclude a long discussion of the semi-structured interview with the comment “the data presented by O'Brien et al. (1999) are not incontrovertible”. The observations of Sözer et al., however, are simply opinions and are not backed by data or supporting arguments. Our opinions differ, and we do not find their arguments compelling. We have not presented our study as incontrovertible, and have in fact discussed the limitations of our survey at length in the manuscript.

We investigated how North Island Weka Gallirallus australis greyi could be conserved in situ at East Cape, New Zealand using banded and radiotransmitter-carrying Weka to measure home range size and use, reproduction and mortality. We fitted radiotransmitters to 28 Weka with 75% of the subsequent fixes from 18 birds being obtained at intervals of < 4 days. Home ranges of 10 males had an estimated median size of 10.6 ha, while 5 female home ranges had an estimated median size of 3.5 ha. Home ranges of individuals of both sexes overlapped. Within their home ranges, Weka preferred bush relative to pasture and may have preferred pines to pasture. Weka did not significantly prefer bush to pines. Breeding occurred year-round, with a summer peak, but 11 breeding pairs raised only four chicks to independence in two years. The causes of egg and chick mortality could not be established, but predators killed six adults, motor vehicles killed six and one adult died in a trap. Measurements of body size revealed that a male-biased sex ratio was likely (67:33). We concluded that the recovery of the North Island Weka population in the East Cape region will require improving reproductive success and decreasing predation on adults. We recommend that managers focus on predator removal and habitat creation in future.

Densities and population estimates are presented for the little known Yellow-breasted Racquet-tail Parrot Prioniturus flavicans, a species endemic to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. Sixteen months of fieldwork was conducted within two protected areas in the island's northern peninsula. Densities were found to be much greater in the Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park than in the Tangkoko Duasaudara Nature Reserve: 16.27 and 7.18 birds/km2, respectively. The species has a much more restricted range than previously thought, being confined to the eastern two-thirds of the north peninsula. The remaining suitable habitat within this range, lowland rainforest, is estimated to be c. 11,300 km2. Using this figure in conjunction with density values we estimate that the world population for this species may be greater than 44,650 birds. Whilst such a population size is higher than previously thought, the very restricted distribution of the species causes concern for its future as loss and fragmentation of forest habitat are ongoing within its range.

The conservation status of the Blue-throated Macaw Ara glaucogularis, a Bolivian endemic, is assessed using the most recent information available. The known range of the species is patchily distributed within an 8,600 km2 area of lowland savanna–forest habitat in the Beni department, under private ownership for cattle ranching, which is the main form of land use in the region. Population surveys of the Blue-throated Macaw revealed this species to exist in very low numbers. The immediate threat to the species is illegal trapping for the live bird trade. Effects of cattle grazing and savanna burning may modify habitat characteristics, but there is no direct evidence suggesting that these factors negatively influence the ecological requirements of Ara glaucogularis. The species is highly associated with the Attalea phalerata palm, which it uses for feeding and nesting. Current conservation efforts include: population and distribution surveys and assessment of habitat requirements; environmental awareness targeted at landowners and ranch personnel; collaboration with subnational and central government bodies; and development of strategies to curtail parrot trafficking activities. Recommendations for the long-term conservation of the species include increasing the involvement of landowners to strengthen protection for wild macaws; working with the Bolivian government on strategies to curb macaw trafficking; increasing environmental education activities with local inhabitants; basic research on breeding requirements and limitations of wild Blue-throated Macaws; and investigating the application of private reserves to the Blue-throated Macaw range.

As an island endemic, the Island Scrub-Jay's Aphelocoma insularis population status and conservation are of concern. In addition, because the Island Scrub-Jay is easily observed, it is an ideal candidate for monitoring the effects of management efforts on Santa Cruz Island, California. We used estimates of territory size in several different habitats occupied by the Island Scrub-Jay and the total area of these habitats on the island to develop an empirical estimate of the population size for this species. Our most conservative, and we feel most realistic, estimate for the Island Scrub-Jay breeding population is 7,000 individuals and for the non-breeding population 5,500 individuals, yielding a total population estimate of 12,500. Even though conservative, this estimate is larger than earlier estimates of 4,000 to 6,000 individuals. Even so, our data suggest no reason exists for immediate concern regarding the population viability of the Island Scrub-Jay and they provide a baseline for future estimates and comparisons. Most importantly, this population estimate can be used to monitor the influence on the Island Scrub-Jay of future island management efforts, especially regarding exotic tree species and feral pigs.

Three forest and woodland sites were surveyed in the lowlands of the East Usambara mountains, Tanzania, from August to October, 1996. Bombo East I and II Proposed Forest Reserves (PFR) and Bombo West FR were previously unknown biologically. Our fieldwork revealed several records of conservation interest. Four species of global conservation concern (Amani Sunbird Anthreptes pallidigaster, Southern Banded Snake Eagle Circaetus fasciolatus, Fischer's Turaco Tauraco fischeri and Plain-backed Sunbird Anthreptes reichenowi) were recorded, with a further seven species of regional concern. These sites were not as rich in bird species as other East Usambara lowland forests. Bombo East I PFR had the highest richness, which included the presence of three montane species that were most likely cold-season visitors. The Endangered Sokoke Scops Owl Otus ireneae, otherwise known from similar woodland habitat in Kenya as well as lowland forest in the East Usambaras, was apparently absent at these sites. It is also clear from our survey that at least four threatened mammals and one possibly endemic snake inhabit the Brachylaena woodlands and mixed dry forest. Thus, our results indicate that the previously unexplored Brachylaena woodlands and mixed dry forest in north-east Tanzania are an additional habitat to some fauna of threatened status and do, therefore, merit conservation attention. The Brachylaena tree is highly favoured for charcoal production and the enormous demand for this product is increasing the degradation of these woodland patches. Larger tracts of unprotected Brachylaena woodland should receive immediate conservation attention.

China is a large country, occupying 9,600,000 km2. It lies between longitudes 73°40′E and 135° 05′E, a distance of some 5,200 km. Mountainous in the west and flat in the east, the land surface of China slopes downward from west to east in a three-step staircase and can be divided into moist, semi-moist, semi-arid and arid regions from the east coast to the inland north-west respectively. From north to south, China covers frigid, temperate, subtropical and tropical zones. All of this variation in geographical and climate conditions combine to give it a high diversity of fauna and flora.

The country is rich in Galliformes. Sixty-one species of two families (Tetraonidae and Phasianidae) are found in the country (Cheng 1994), which is about 22% of the 277 Galliformes species of the world (Sibley and Monroe 1990). In recent decades, as a result of big changes in the environments and the increasing human activities, the ranges of Chinese Galliformes have decreased and the population densities have declined (Zheng and Zhang 1993). The status of the country's Galliformes was assessed in the mid 1990s as part of two global reviews: through the compilation of IUCN/World Pheasant Association (WPA) action plans for pheasants (McGowan and Garson 1995) and partridges (McGowan et al., 1995), and through the revision of BirdLife International's list of threatened bird species (Collar et al. 1994). Both assessments considered that a high proportion of the world's threatened Galliformes occurred in China.