Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-b4m5d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-23T20:44:39.896Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Internalizing Early Memories of Shame and Lack of Safeness and Warmth: The Mediating Role of Shame on Depression

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 March 2013

Marcela Matos ,
José Pinto-Gouveia  and
Cristiana Duarte
Marcela Matos*
Affiliation:
University of Coimbra, Portugal
José Pinto-Gouveia
Affiliation:
University of Coimbra, Portugal
Cristiana Duarte
Affiliation:
University of Coimbra, Portugal
*
Reprint requests to Marcela Matos, Cognitive-Behavioural Research Centre (CINEICC), Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação, Universidade de Coimbra, Rua do Colégio Novo, Apartado 6153, 3001-802 Coimbra, Portugal. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background: Growing evidence supports the association between early memories of shame and lack of safeness and current shame and depression. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether shame serves as a mediator between such early memories and depressive symptoms. Aims: This study aimed at testing whether the impact of shame traumatic memory, centrality of shame memory, early memories of warmth and safeness (predictors), on depressive symptoms (outcome) would be mediated by current external and internal shame. Method: Student participants (N = 178) recalled an early shame experience and completed self-report instruments measuring centrality and traumatic characteristics of the shame memory, early memories of warmth and safeness, external and internal shame and depressive symptoms. Results: Path analysis’ results revealed that internal shame fully mediated the relationship between shame traumatic memory, centrality of shame memory, and early memories of warmth and safeness, and depression. However, current feelings of external shame, highly linked to internal shame, did not significantly predict depression. Conclusion: These findings shed light on the role of internalizing early shame and lack of safeness memories into a sense of self as globally self-condemning in the vulnerability to experience depressive symptoms.

Keywords

Shame memorypositive affiliative memoriesshamedepressionpath analysismediator effect
Type
Research Article
Information
Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy , Volume 41 , Issue 4 , July 2013 , pp. 479 - 493
Copyright
Copyright © British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, B., Brewin, C., Vearnals, S., Wolff, G. and Leff, J. (1999). An investigation of shame and guilt in a depressed sample. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 72, 323–339.Google Scholar
Allan, S., Gilbert, P. and Goss, K. (1994). An exploration of shame measures: II. psychopathology. Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 719–722.Google Scholar
Andrews, B., Qian, M. and Valentine, J. (2002). Predicting depressive symptoms with a new measure of shame: the experience of shame scale. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 29–33.Google Scholar
Ashby, J., Rice, K. and Martin, J. (2006). Perfectionism, shame and depressive symptoms. Journal of Counselling and Development, 84, 148–157.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F. and Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.Google Scholar
Berntsen, D. and Rubin, D. C. (2006). Centrality of event scale: a measure of integrating a trauma into one's identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 219–231. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.01.009Google Scholar
Berntsen, D. and Rubin, D. C. (2007). When a trauma becomes a key to identity: enhanced integration of trauma memories predicts posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 417–431. doi:10.1002/acp.1290.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment: attachment and loss, vol. 1. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1973). Separation, Anxiety and Anger: attachment and loss, vol. 2. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss, Sadness and Depression: attachment and loss, vol. 3. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Brewin, C., Andrews, B. and Gotlib, I. (1993). Psychopathology and early experience: a reappraisal of retrospective reports. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 82–98.Google Scholar
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural Equation Modelling with AMOS: basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd edn.). New York: Routledge Academic.Google Scholar
Byrne, R. W. (1995). The Thinking Ape. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cacioppo, J. T., Berston, G. G., Sheridan, J. F. and McClintock, M. K. (2000). Multilevel integrative analysis of human behavior: social neuroscience and the complementing nature of social and biological approaches. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 829–843.Google Scholar
Carter, C. S. (1998). Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love. Psychoneuroendorinlogy, 23, 779–818.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P. R. (Eds.) (1999). Handbook of Attachment: theory, research and clinical applications (pp. 115–140). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cheng, H. and Furnham, A. (2004). Perceived parental rearing style, self-esteem and self-criticism as predictors of happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5, 1–21.Google Scholar
Cheung, M., Gilbert, P. and Irons, C. (2004). An exploration of shame, social rank and rumination in relation to depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1143–1153.Google Scholar
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. and Aiken, L. (2003). Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences (3rd edn.). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Conway, M. A. (2005). Memory and the self. Journal of Memory and Language, 53, 594–628.Google Scholar
Cook, D. R. (1994, 2001). Internalized Shame Scale: technical manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.Google Scholar
Cook, D. (1996). Empirical studies of shame and guilt: the Internalized Shame Scale. In Nathanson, D. L. (Ed.), Knowing Feeling: affect, script and psychotherapy (pp. 132–165). New York: W. W. Norton and Company.Google Scholar
Cozolino, L. (2006). The Neuroscience of Human Relationships: attachment and the developing brain. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Dearing, R. L. and Tangney, J. P. (Eds.) (2011). Shame in the Therapy Hour. Washington DC: APA Books.Google Scholar
DeHart, T., Pelham, B. W. and Tennen, H. (2006). What lies beneath: parenting style and implicit self-esteem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 4, 1–17.Google Scholar
Gerhardt, S. (2004). Why Love Matters: how affection shapes a baby's brain. London: Bruner-Routledge.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (1989). Human Nature and Suffering. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (1992). Depression: the evolution of powerlessness. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (1997). Overcoming Depression: a self-guide using cognitive behavioural techniques. London: Robinsons.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (1998). What is shame? Some core issues and controversies. In Gilbert, P. and Andrews, B. (Eds.), Shame: interpersonal behaviour, psychopathology and culture (pp. 3–36). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2000). The relationship of shame, social anxiety and depression: the role of the evaluation of social rank. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 7, 174–189.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2002). Body shame: a biopsychosocial conceptualisation and overview, with treatment implications. In Gilbert, P. and Miles, J. (Eds.), Body Shame: conceptualisation, research and treatment (pp. 3–54). London: Brunner.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2003). Evolution, social roles and the differences in shame and guilt. Social Research, 70, 1205–1230.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (Ed.) (2005). Compassion: conceptualisations, research and use in psychotherapy. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2007). The evolution of shame as a marker for relationship security. In Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W. and Tangney, J. P. (Eds.), The Self-Conscious Emotions: theory and research. (pp. 283–309). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2009a). The Compassionate Mind: a new approach to life's challenges. London: Constable-Robinson.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2009b). Evolved minds and compassion focused imagery in depression. In Stropa, L. (Ed.), Imagery and the Threatened Self: perspectives on mental imagery in cognitive therapy. (pp. 206–231). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2009c). Introducing compassion-focused therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15, 199–208.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion Focused Therapy: distinctive features. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P., Baldwin, M. W., Irons, C., Baccus, J. R. and Palmer, M. (2006). Self-criticism and self-warmth: an imagery study exploring their relation to depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly, 20, 183–201.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P. and McGuire, M. (1998). Shame, social roles and status: the psycho-biological continuum from monkey to human. In Gilbert, P. and Andrews, B. (Eds.), Shame: interpersonal behavior, psychopathology and culture (pp. 99–125). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Goss, K., Gilbert, P. and Allan, S. (1994). An exploration of shame measures: I – the “Other as Shamer Scale”. Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 713–717.Google Scholar
Kim, S., Thibodeau, R. and Jorgensen, R. (2011). Shame, guilt, and depressive symptoms: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 68–96.Google Scholar
Kline, R. (2005). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modelling (2nd edn.). New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. (1992). Shame: the exposed self. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. (2003). The role of the self in shame. Social Research: An International Quarterly of the Social Sciences, 70, 1181–1204.Google Scholar
Lindsay-Hartz, J., de Rivera, J. and Mascolo, M. F. (1995). Differentiating guilt and shame and their effects on motivations. In Tangney, J. P. and Fischer, K. W. (Eds.), Self-Conscious Emotions: the psychology of shame, guilt, embarrassment and pride (pp. 274–300). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Liotti, G. and Gilbert, P. (2011). Mentalizing, motivation, and social mentalities: theoretical considerations and implications for psychotherapy. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84, 9–25.Google Scholar
Lovibond, P. and Lovibond, , , H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with Beck depressive and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 3, 335–343.Google Scholar
Martin, P. (2006). Making Happy People: the nature of happiness and its origins in childhood. London: Fourth Estate.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.Google Scholar
Matos, M. and Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2006). The Shame Experiences Interview. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Matos, M. and Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2010). Shame as a traumatic memory. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 17, 299–312. doi: 10.1002/cpp.659Google Scholar
Matos, M. and Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2011a). Shamed by a Parent or by Others: the role of attachment in shame memories relation to depression. Manuscript submitted for publication and still under revision.Google Scholar
Matos, M. and Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2011b). Centrality of Shame Memory as a Moderator on the Relationship between Shame and Depression. Manuscript submitted for publication and still under revisionGoogle Scholar
Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J. and Costa, V. (2011). Understanding the importance of attachment in shame traumatic memory relation to depression: the impact of emotion regulation processes. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1002/cpp.786Google Scholar
Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J. and Duarte, C. (2011a). The Portuguese Version of the Early Memories of Warmth and Safeness Scale. Manuscript in preparation.Google Scholar
Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J. and Duarte, C. (2011b). Other as Shamer: versão portuguesa e propriedades psicométricas de uma medida de vergonha externa [Other as shamer: Portuguese version and psychometric properties of a measure of external shame]. Manuscript submitted for publication and still under revision.Google Scholar
Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J. and Duarte, C. (2012). When I don't like myself: study of the psychometric properties of the Portuguese version of the Internalized Shame Scale. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 15 (3), 1411–1423 doi: 10.5209/rev_SJOP.2012.v15.n3.39425.Google Scholar
Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J. and Gilbert, P. (2012). The effect of shame and shame memories on paranoid ideation and social anxiety in a general community sample. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1002/cpp.1766Google Scholar
Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J. and Gomes, P. (2010). A centralidade das experiências de vergonha: Estudo das propriedades psicométricas da versão portuguesa da Escala da Centralidade do Acontecimento [The centrality of shame experiences: Study of the psychometric properties of the Portuguese version of the Centrality of Event Scale]. Psicologia, XXIV, 73–95.Google Scholar
Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J. and Martins, S. (2011). Propriedades psicométricas da versão portuguesa da Escala do Impacto do Acontecimento-Revista (IES-R) [Psychometric properties of the Portuguese version of the Impact of Event Scale – Revised]. Psychologica, 54, 413–438.Google Scholar
Mikulincer, M. and Shaver, P. R. (2004). Security-based self-representations in adulthood: contents and processes. In Rholes, W. S. and Simpson, J. A. (Eds.), Adult Attachment: theory, research, and clinical implications (pp. 159–195). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Mikulincer, M. and Shaver, P. (2005). Mental representations of attachment security: theoretical foundations for a positive social psychology. In Baldwin, M. W. (Ed.), Interpersonal Cognition (pp. 233–266). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Pais-Ribeiro, J., Honrado, A. and Leal, I. (2004). Contribuição para o estudo da adaptação portuguesa das Escalas de Ansiedade Depressão e Stress de Lovibond e Lovibond [Contribution for the study of the Portuguese adaptation of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales by Lovibond and Lovibond]. Psychologica, 36, 235–246.Google Scholar
Perry, B., Pollard, R., Blakley, T., Baker, W. and Vigilante, D. (1995). Childhood trauma, the neurobiology of adaptation, and “use dependent” development of the brain: how states become traits. Journal of Infant Mental Health, 16, 271–291.Google Scholar
Pinto-Gouveia, J. and Matos, M. (2011). Can shame memories become a key to identity? The centrality of shame memories predicts psychopathology. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 281–290. doi: 10.1002/acp1689.Google Scholar
Price, J., Sloman, L., Gardner, R., Gilbert, P. and Rohde, P. (1994). The social competition hypothesis of depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 309–315.Google Scholar
Porges, S. (2003). The Polyvagal theory: phylogenetic contributions to social behaviour. Physiology and Behavior, 79, 503–513.Google Scholar
Richter, A., Gilbert, P. and McEwan, K. (2009). Development of an early memories of warmth and safeness scale and its relationship to psychopathology. Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory, Research and Practice, 82, 171–184.Google Scholar
Schore, A. N. (1994). Affect Regulation and the Origin of the Self: the neurobiology of emotional development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Siegel, D. J. (2001). The Developing Mind: how relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Sloman, L., Gilbert, P. and Hasey, G. (2003). Evolved mechanisms in depression: the role and interaction of attachment and social rank. Journal of Affective Disorders, 74, 107–121.Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P. and Dearing, R. L. (2002). Shame and Guilt. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tangney, J., Stuewig, J. and Mashek, D. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behaviour. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345–372.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E., Way, B. M., Welch, W. T., Hilmert, C. J., Lehman, B. J. and Eisenberger, N. I. (2006). Early family environment, current adversity, the serotonin transporter polymorphism, and depressive symptomatology. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 671–676.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. and Berenbaum, H. (2006). Shame reactions to everyday dilemmas are associated with depressive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 415–425.Google Scholar
Tracy, J. L. and Robins, R. W. (2004). Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: a theoretical model. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 103–125.Google Scholar
Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W. and Tangney, J. P. (Eds.) (2007). The Self-Conscious Emotions: theory and research. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Weiss, D. S. and Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In Wilson, J. P. and Keane, T. M. (Eds.), Assessing Psychological Trauma and PTSD (pp. 99–411). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.