Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T20:23:22.708Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Unified cognitive theory: Having one's apple pie and eating it

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 May 2011

Stephan Lewandowsky
Stephan Lewandowsky
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019-0535, Electronic mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 15 , Issue 3 , September 1992 , pp. 449 - 450
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aasman, J. & Michon, J. A. (1992) Multitasking in driving. In: Soar: A cognitive architecture in perspective, ed. Michon, J. A. & Akyürek, A.. Kluwer. [JAM]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1976) Language, memory and thought. Erlbaum. [rAN, JMC]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1983) The architecture of cognition. Harvard University Press. [arAN, JMC, SL, KJV]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1990) The adaptive character of thought. Erlbaum. [RWR]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Bower, G. (1973) Human associative memory. Winston. [rAN]Google Scholar
Baars, B. J. (1988) A cognitive theory of consciousness. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [MVL]Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1986) Working memory. Oxford University Press (Oxford). [RAC]Google ScholarPubMed
Baron, S., Kleinman, D., & Levison, W. (1970) An optimal control model of human response. Automatica 5:337–69. [SKC]Google Scholar
Bickerton, D. (1990) Language and species. University of Chicago Press. [DB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bingham, G. P., Schmidt, R. C. & Rosenblum, L. D. (1989) Hefting for a maximum distance throw: A smart perceptual mechanism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 15:507–28. [KJV]Google ScholarPubMed
Bobrow, D. & Winograd, T. (1977) An overview of KRL, a knowledge representation language. Cognitive Science 1:3–46. [EC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, T. L. (1967) Sequential machines and automata theory. Wiley. [JTT]Google Scholar
Bower, G. H. (1975) Cognitive psychology: An introduction. In: Handbook of learning and cognitive processes, vol. 1, ed. Estes, W. K.. Erlbaum. [NHF]Google Scholar
Brentano, F. (1874) Psychology from an empirical standpoint. Duncker & Humbolt. Reprinted 1973; Humanities Press. [aAN]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. (1990) A problem looking for solutions: A feature review of Cognitive science and its applications for human computer interaction, ed. Raymonde Guindon, and The psychology of human computer interaction by S. K. Card, T. P. Moran & A. Newell. Psychological Science 1(4):235–39. [SKC]Google Scholar
Budde, R., Floyd, C., Keil-Slawik, R. & Zullighoven, H., eds. (1991) Software development and reality construction. Springer-Verlag. [JMC]Google Scholar
Card, S. K. (1990) Models of working memory. In: Human performance models for computer-aided engineering, ed. Elkind, J. I., Card, S. K., Hochberg, J. & Huey, B.. Academic Press. [SKC]Google Scholar
Card, S., Moran, T. P. & Newell, A. (1983) The psychology of humancomputer interaction. Erlbaum. [arAN]Google Scholar
Carley, K. & Newell, A. (1991) The nature of the social agent, Soar Project, School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University (under review). [rAN]Google Scholar
Carpenter, G. A. (1989) Neural network models for pattern recognition and memory. Neural Networks 2:243–57. [PCD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, J. M. (1988) Modularity and naturalness in cognitive science. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 3:61–86. [JMC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, J. M. (1990) The Nurnberg funnel: Designing minimalist instruction for practical computer skill. MIT Press. [JMC]Google Scholar
Carroll, J. M. ed. (1991) Designing interaction: Psychology at the human-computer interface. Cambridge University Press. [JMC]Google Scholar
Carroll, J. M. & Campbell, R. L. (1986) Softening up hard science: Reply to Newell & Card. Human-Computer Interaction 2:227–49. [JMC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chi, M. T. H. & Klahr, D. (1975) Span and rate of apprehension in children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 19:434–39. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cho, B., Rosenbloom, P. S. & Dolan, C. P. (1991) Neuro-Soar: A neuralnetwork architecture for goal-oriented behavior. Proceedings of the 13th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Chicago, August. [rAN]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1959) Review of B. F. Skinner's verbal behavior. Language 35:26–58. [CP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Churchland, P. S. (1986) Neurophilosophy: Toward a unified science of the mind/brain. MIT Press. [rAN, CP]Google Scholar
Clark, A. (1989) Microcognition: Philosophy, cognitive science, and parallel distributed processing. MIT Press. [EC]Google Scholar
Clark, H. & Clark, E. (1977) The psychology of language: An introduction to psycholinguistics. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. [aAN]Google Scholar
Cohen, P. R. (1989) Why knowledge systems research is in trouble and what we can do about it. Technical Report 89–81, Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Massachusetts. [SAV]Google Scholar
Colegate, R., Hoffman, J. E. & Eriksen, C. W. (1973) Selective encoding from multielement visual displays. Perception & Psychophysics 14:217–24. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crowder, R. G. (1982) The demise of short-term memory. Acta Psychologica 50:291–323. [RAG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daneman, M. & Carpenter, P. (1980) Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19:450–66. [RAG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, P. C. W. & Brown, J. (1988) Introduction. In: Superstrings: A theory of everything? ed. Davies, P. C. W. & Brown, J.. Cambridge University Press. [LG]Google Scholar
Demazeau, Y. & Mueller, J.-P. (1990) Decentralized artificial intelligence. In: Decentralized AI, ed. Demazeau, Y. & Mueller, J.-P.. North-Holland. [SAV]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1978) Brainstorms: Philosophical essays on mind and psychology. Harvester Press. [JAM]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1983) Intentional systems in cognitive ethology: The “Panglossian paradigm” defended. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:343–90. [PCD, DQ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1988) The intentional stance. MIT Press. [MEW]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1991) Consciousness explained. Little, Brown. [PCD]Google Scholar
Dietterich, T. G. (1986) Learning at the knowledge level. Machine Learning 1:287–316. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dinges, D. F. & Kribbs, N. B. (1991) Performing while sleepy: Effects of experimentally-induced sleepiness. In: Sleep, sleepiness, and performance, ed. Monk, T.. Wiley. [RWR]Google Scholar
Dodwell, P. C. (1960) Causes of behaviour and explanation in psychology. Mind 69:1–13. [PCD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodwell, P. C. (1986) Computing and understanding. Human Neurobiology 5:137–44. [PCD]Google ScholarPubMed
Doorenbos, B., Tambe, M. & Newell, A. (1992) Learning 10,000 chunks: What's it like out there? Proceedings of the Eleventh National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, July (in press). [rAN]Google Scholar
Duncker, G. (1945) On problem solving. Psychological Monographs 58(5): Whole No. 270. [CP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egeth, H. E., Folk, C. L. & Mullin, P. A. (1988) Spatial parallelism in the processing of lines, letters, and lexicality. In: Object perception: Structure and process, ed. Shepp, B. E. & Ballesteros, S.. Erlbaum. [JTT]Google Scholar
Elkind, J. I., Card, S. K., Hochberg, J. & Huey, B., eds. (1990) Human performance models for computer-aided engineering. Academic Press. [SKC]Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. & Simon, H. A. (1980) Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review 87:215–51. [RAG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fehling, M. R., Altman, A. & Wilber, B. M. (1989) The MCVM: An instance of schema, an architecture for resource constrained problem-solving. In: Proceedings of the American Association of Artificial Intelligence 1989 Symposium on Limited Rationality, ed. Fehling, M. R. & Russell, S.. American Association of Artificial Intelligence. [MVL]Google Scholar
Feldman, J. A. & Ballard, D. (1982) Connectionist models and their properties. Cognitive Science 6:205–54. [aAN, CP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferretti, R. P. & Butterfield, E. C. (1986) Are children's rule assessment classifications invariant across instances of problem types? Child Development 57:1419–28. [TRS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Festinger, L. (1954) A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations 7:117–40. [aAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, D. H. (1987) Knowledge acquisition via incremental conceptual clustering. Machine Learning 2:139–72. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, D. L. & Goldstein, W. M. (1983) Stochastic PERT networks as models of cognition: Derivation of the mean, variance, and distribution of reaction time using order-of-processing (OP) diagram. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 27:121–51. [JTT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitts, P. M. (1954) The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology 47:381–91. [SKC, MVL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flexser, A. J. & Tulving, E. (1978) Retrieval independence in recognition and recall. Psychological Review 85:153–71. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. (1983) The modularity of mind: An essay on faculty psychology. MIT Press. [arAN, DB, CP, MEW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. & Pylyshyn, Z. (1988) Connectionism and cognitive architecture: A critical analysis. Cognition 28:3–71. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forster, K. I. (1979) Levels of processing and the structure of the language processor. In: Sentence processing, ed. Cooper, W. E. & Walker, E. C. T.. Erlbaum. [CP]Google Scholar
Frijda, N. H. (1986) The emotions. Cambridge University Press. [rAN]Google Scholar
Gardenfors, P. (1990) Induction, conceptual spaces and AI. Philosophy of Science 57:78–95. [LG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garfield, J. L., ed. (1989) Modularity in knowledge representation and language processing. MIT Press. [CP]Google Scholar
Gelman, R. (1982) Accessing one-to-one correspondence: Still another paper about conservation. British Journal of Psychology 73:209–20. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton-Mifflin. [EC, KJV]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1977/1982) Notes on direct perception and indirect apprehension. In: Reasons for realism: Selected essays of James J. Gibson, ed. Reed, E. & Jones, R.. Erlbaum. [KJV]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. & Gibson, E. J. (1955) Perceptual learning: Differentiation or enrichment? Psychological Review 62:32–41. [EC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, E. M. (1967) Language identification in the limit. Information and Control 10:447–74. [DB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldfarb, L. (1990) On the foundations of intelligent processes I: An evolving model for pattern learning. Pattern Recognition 23:595–16. [LG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldfarb, L. (1991) Verifiable characterization of an intelligent process. In: Proceedings of the 4th UNB Artificial Intelligence Symposium, ed. Goldfarb, L. & Nickerson, B. G.. University of New Brunswick Press. [LG]Google Scholar
Goldfarb, L. (1992) What is distance and why we need the metric model for pattern learning? Pattern Recognition 25(4). [LG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Good, I. J. (1965) Speculations concerning the first ultraintelligent machine. In: Advances in computers, vol. 6, ed. Alt, F. L. & Rubinoff, M.. Academic Press. [EC]Google Scholar
Goodman, N. (1984) Of mind and other matters. Harvard University Press. [JAM]Google Scholar
Gary, W. D., John, B. E. & Atwood, M. E. (1992) The précis of project Ernestine, or, an overview of a validation of GOMS. Paper presented at CHI'92 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Monterey, California, May 3–7. [JMC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greeno, J. G. & Steiner, T. E. (1964) Markovian processes with identifiable states: General considerations and application to all-or-none learning. Psychometrika 29:309–33. [JTT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, R. L. (1969) On how so little information controls so much behavior. In: Towards a theoretical biology, two sketches, ed. Waddington, C. H.. Edinburgh University Press. [EC]Google Scholar
Hayes-Roth, B. (1984) A blackboard model of control. Artificial Intelligence 16:1–84. [MVL]Google Scholar
Hebb, D. O. (1949) The organization of behavior. Wiley. [EC]Google Scholar
Hockley, W. E. (1984) Analysis of response time distributions in the study of cognitive processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 10:598–615. [rAN, SL]Google Scholar
Hofstadter, D. R. (1979) Gödel, Escher, Bach: An eternal golden braid. Basic Books. [rAN, EC]Google Scholar
Holland, J. H., Holyoak, K. J., Nisbett, R. E. & Thagard, P. R. (1987) Induction: Processes of inference, learning, and discovery. MIT Press. [rAN]Google Scholar
Honderich, T. (1988) A theory of determinism. The mind, neuroscience and life hopes. Clarendon Press. [PCD]Google Scholar
Huffman, S. B. (1989) A natural-language system for interaction with problemsolving domains: Extensions to NL-Soar. Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, May (unpublished). [rAN]Google Scholar
Hughes, H. C. & Zimba, L. D. (1985) Spatial maps of directed visual attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 11:409–30. [rAN]Google ScholarPubMed
Hull, C. L. (1943) Principles of behavior. Appleton-Century. [PCD]Google Scholar
Hunt, E. B. (1962) Concept learning: An information processing problem. Wiley. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, W. (1892) Psychology: The briefer course (1961 edition). Harper & Row. [EC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, J. J. (1981) Can we have a fruitful cognitive psychology? In: Cognitive processes: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1980, ed. Howe, H. E. & Flowers, J. H.. University of Nebraska Press. [SFC]Google Scholar
John, B. E. (1988) Contributions to engineering models of human-computer interaction. Ph.D. dissertation, Psychology Department, Carnegie-Mellon University. [arAN]Google Scholar
John, B. E. (1991) Short-term memory in Soar. Talk presented at panel on Diverse Perspectives on Working Memory at the Thirteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, August. [rAN]Google Scholar
John, B. E. & Newell, A. (1987) Predicting the time to recall computer command abbreviations. In: Proceedings of CHI'87 Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery. [arAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
John, B. E., Remington, R. W. & Steier, D. M. (1991) An analysis of Space Shuttle countdown activities: Preliminaries to a computational model of the NASA Test Director. Technical Report No. CMU-CS-91-138, School of Computer Science and Department of Psychology, Carnegie-Mellon University. [rAN, RWR]Google Scholar
John, B. E. & Vera, A. H. (1992) A GOMS analysis of a graphic-displaybased, machine-paced, highly interactive task. Proceedings of CHI'92 Conference, May (to appear). [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. (1983) Mental models. Harvard University Press. [aAN, NEW]Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. & Bara, B. G. (1984) Syllogistic inference. Cognition 16:1–61. [NEW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson-Laird, P. N. & Byrne, R. M. J. (1991) Deduction. Erlbaum. [rAN]Google Scholar
Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. (1987) The psychology of reading and language comprehension. Allyn & Bacon. [aAN]Google Scholar
Kaplan, S. (1973) Cognitive maps in perception and thought. In: Image and environment, ed. Downs, R. M. & Stea, D.. Aldine. [EC]Google Scholar
Kaplan, S. (1991) Beyond rationality: Clarity-based decision making. In: Environment, cognition and action: An integrative multidisciplinary approach, ed. Garling, T. & Evans, G.. Oxford University Press. [EC]Google Scholar
Kaplan, S. & Kaplan, R. (1982) Cognition and environment: Functioning in an uncertain world. Praeger. (republished by Ulrich's, 1989). [EC]Google Scholar
Kaplan, S., Sonntag, M. & Chown, E. (1991) Tracing recurrent activity in cognitive elements (TRACE): A model of temporal dynamics in a cell assembly. Connection Science 3:179–206. [EC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, S., Weaver, M. & French, R. (1990) Active symbols and internal models: Towards a cognitive connectionism. Artificial Intelligence & Society 4:51–71. [EC]Google Scholar
Katona, G. (1940) Organizing and memorizing. Columbia University Press. [CP]Google Scholar
Keele, S. W. (1986) Motor control. In: Handbook of perception and human performance, vol. II, ed. Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L. & Thomas, J. P.. Wiley. [rAN, EH]Google Scholar
Kieras, D. E. & Bovair, S. (1986) A production system analysis of transfer of training. Journal of Memory and Language 25:506–24. [RWR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kintsch, N. (1974) The representation of meaning in memory. Erlbaum. [SL, CP]Google Scholar
Klapp, S. T., Marshburn, E. A. & Lester, P. T. (1983) Short-term memory does not involve the “working memory” of information processing: The demise of a common assumption. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 112:240–64. [RAC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kleinsmith, L. J. & Kaplan, S. (1964) Interaction of arousal and recall interval in nonsense syllable paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 67:124–26. [EC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koch, S., ed. (1959) Epilogue. In: Psychology: A study of a science, vol. 3. McGraw-Hill. [NHF]Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. & Smythe, W. E. (1984) Symbol manipulation: Alternatives to the computational view of mind. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 23:328–30. [PCD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kornblum, S., Hasbroucq, T. & Osman, A. (1990) Dimensional overlap, a cognitive basis for stimulus-response compatibility: A model and taxonomy. Psychological Review 97:253–70. [rAN, RWP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaBerge, D. (1980) Unitization and automaticity in perception. In: Nebraska symposium on motivation, ed. Flowers, J. H.. University of Nebraska Press. [MVL]Google Scholar
LaBerge, D. & Brown, V. (1989) Theory of attentional operations in shape identification. Psychological Review 96:101–24. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lachman, J. L. & Lachman, R. (1979) Theories of memory organization and human evolution. In: Memory organization and structure, ed. Puff, C. R.. Academic Press. [EC]Google Scholar
Laird, J. E., Congdon, C. B., Altmann, E. & Swerdlow, K. (1990) Soar user's manual: Version 5.2. University of Michigan; Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science. [JAM]Google Scholar
Laird, J. E., Newell, A. & Rosenbloom, P. S. (1987) Soar: An architecture for general intelligence. Artificial Intelligence 33:1–64. [aAN, JAM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laird, J. E. & Rosenbloom, P. S. (1990) Integrating execution, planning, and learning in Soar for external environments. Proceedings of the National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, July. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laird, J. E., Rosenbloom, P. S. & Newell, A. (1986) Universal subgoaling and chunking. Kluwer. [RWP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lakatos, I. M. (1978) The methodology of scientific research programmes. Cambridge University Press. [JMC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehman, J. F., Lewis, R. L. & Newell, A. (1991a) Integrating knowledge sources in language comprehension. Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Thirteenth Annual Conference, August. Cognitive Science Society. [rAN]Google Scholar
Lehman, J. F., Lewis, R. L. & Newell, A. (1991b) Natural language comprehension in Soar: Spring 1991 (Technical Report CMU-CS-91-117). School of Computer Science, Carnegie-Mellon University. [rAN]Google Scholar
Lehman, J. F., Newell, A., Polk, T. A. & Lewis, R. (1992) The role of language in cognition: A computational inquiry. In: Conceptions of the human mind, ed. G. Harman. Erlbaum (in press). [rAN]Google Scholar
Levenick, J. R. (1991) NAPS: A connectionist implementation of cognitive maps. Connection Science 3:107–26. [EC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewandowsky, S., Dunn, J. C. & Kirsner, K., eds. (1989) Implicit memory: Theoretical issue. Erlbaum. [SL]Google Scholar
Lewis, R. (1992) Recent developments in the NL-Soar garden path theory. Technical report, School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University (forthcoming). [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, R., Huffman, S., John, B., Laird, J., Lehman, J. F., Newell, A., Rosenbloom, P., Simon, T. & Tessler, S. (1990) Soar as a unified theory of cognition: Spring 1990. Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Twelfth Annual Conference (July). Cognitive Science Society. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, R. L., Newell, A. & Polk, T. A. (1989) Toward a Soar theory of taking instructions for immediate reasoning tasks. Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Eleventh Annual Conference (August). Cognitive Science Society. [rAN]Google Scholar
Lindsay, R. K. (1991) Symbol-processing theories and the Soar architecture. (Review of Unified theories of cognition). Psychological Science 2:294–302. [rAN, RWR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logan, G. D. (1985) Executive control of thought and action. Acta Psychologica 60:193–210. [RAC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandler, G. & Mandler, J., eds. (1964) Thinking: From association to Gestalt. Wiley. [CP]Google Scholar
Mark, L. S. (1987) Eyeheight-scaled information about affordances: A study of sitting and stair climbing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 13:361–70. [KJV]Google ScholarPubMed
Markovitch, S. & Scott, P. (1988) The role of forgetting in learning. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Machine Learning, Ann Arbor, Michigan. [EC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marr, D. (1982) Vision. W. H. Freeman. [rAN]Google Scholar
Maslov, S. Y. (1987) Theory of deductive systems and its applications. MIT Press. [LG]Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1982) The growth of biological thought: Diversity, evolution and inheritance. Harvard University Press. [rAN]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. (1988) Parallel distributed processing: Implications for cognition and development. Technical report, Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University. [rAN]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. & Rumelhart, D. E. (1986) Parallel distributed processing, vol. 2. MIT Press. [CP]Google Scholar
McCulloch, W. S. (1965) Embodiments of mind. MIT Press. [aAN]Google Scholar
McDermott, J. (1982) R1: A rule-based configurer of computer systems. Artificial Intelligence 19:39–88. [aAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, D. E., Abrams, R. A., Kornblum, S., Wright, C. E. & Smith, J. E. K. (1988) Optimality in human motor performance: Ideal control of rapid aimed movements. Psychological Review 95:340–70. [RWP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, C. S. & Laird, J. E. (1992) A simple symbolic algorithm for incremental concept acquisition. Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, University of Michigan, January, (unpublished). [rAN]Google Scholar
Miller, C. S. & Laird, J. E. (1991) A constraint-motivated model of concept formation. Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Society, August. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. A. (1986) Dismembering cognition. In: G. Stanley Hall and the Johns Hopkins Tradition, ed. Hulse, S. H. & Green, B. F. Jr., Johns Hopkins University Press. [SFC]Google Scholar
Mitchell, T. M., Allen, J., Chalasani, P., Cheng, J., Etzioni, O., Rinquette, M. & Schlimmer, J. C. (1991) Theo: A framework for self-improving systems. In: Architectures for intelligence, ed. VanLehn, K.. Erlbaum. [rAN]Google Scholar
Montague, R. (1974) Formal philosophy, ed. Thomason, R.. Yale University Press. [PS]Google Scholar
Moore, E. F. (1956) Gedanken-experiments on sequential machines. Automata studies, annals of mathematical studies, No. 34. Princeton University Press. [JTT]Google Scholar
Moray, N. (1959) Attention in dichotic listening: Affective cues and the influence of instructions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 11:56–60. [MVL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moray, N. (1969) Attention: Selective processes in vision and hearing. Hutchinson. [MVL]Google Scholar
Nagel, T. (1986) The view from nowhere. Oxford University Press (Oxford). [PCD]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1963) The multiplicity of thought. British Journal of Psychology 54:1–14. [CP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neisser, U. (1987) From direct perception to conceptual structure. In: Concepts and conceptual development: Ecological and intellectual factors in categorization, ed. Neisser, U.. Cambridge University Press. [KJV]Google Scholar
Nelson, T. O. (1976) Reinforcement and human memory. In: Handbook of learning and cognitive processes, vol. 3, ed. Estes, W. K.. Erlbaum. [TRS]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1969) Heuristic programming: Ill-structured problems. In: Progress in operations research, III, ed. Aronofsky, J.. Wiley. [rAN]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1973a) You can't play 20 questions with nature and win: Projective comments on the papers of this symposium. In: Visual information processing, ed. Chase, W. G.. Academic Press. [arAN, SFC, SKC, JAM, JIT]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1973b) Artificial intelligence and the concept of mind. In: Computer models of thought and language, ed. Schank, R. C. & Colby, K. M.. W. H. Freeman. [rAN]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1973c) Production systems: Models of control structures. In: Visual information processing, ed. Chase, W. C.. Academic Press. [rAN]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1980) Physical symbol systems. Cognitive Science 4:135–83. [rAN]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1983) Intellectual issues in the history of artificial intelligence. In: The study of information: Interdisciplinary messages, ed. Machlup, F. & Mansfield, U.. Wiley. [rAN]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1989a) Putting it all together. In: Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon, ed. Klahr, D. & Kotovsky, K.. Erlbaum. [JAM]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1989b) How it all got put together. In: Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon, ed. Klahr, D. & Kotovsky, K.. Erlbaum. [JAM]Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1992) Unified theories of cognition: The role of Soar. In: Soar: A cognitive architecture in perspective, ed. Michon, J. A. & Akyürek, A.. Kluwer. [rAN, JAM]Google Scholar
Newell, A. & Rosenbloom, P. (1981) Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice. In: Cognitive skills and their acquisition, ed. Anderson, J. R.. Erlbaum. [aAN]Google Scholar
Newell, A., Rosenbloom, P. & Laird, J. (1989) Symbolic architectures for cognition. In: Foundations of cognitive science, ed. Posner, M.. MIT/Bradford Books. [rAN]Google Scholar
Newell, A., Shaw, J. C. & Simon, H. A. (1958) Elements of a theory of human problem solving. Psychological Review 65:151–66. [SKC, CP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newell, A. & Simon, H. A. (1972) Human problem solving. Prentice-Hall. [aAN, RAC, SKC, MVL, CP]Google Scholar
Nilsson, L.-G. & Gardiner, J. M. (1991) Memory theory and the boundary conditions of the Tulving-Wiseman law. In: Relating theory and data: Essays on human memory in honor of Rennet R. Murdock, ed. Hockley, W. E. & Lewandowsky, S.. Erlbaum. [SL]Google Scholar
Nilsson, L.-G., Law, J. & Tulving, E. (1988) Recognition failure of recallable unique names: Evidence for an empirical law of memory and learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 14:266–77. [SL]Google Scholar
Nilsson, N. J. (1983) Artificial intelligence prepares for 2001. AI Magazine 4/1:7–14. [SAV]Google Scholar
Norman, D. A. (1991) Approaches to the study of intelligence. Artificial Intelligence 47:327–46. [SL, RWR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norman, D. A. & Draper, S. W., eds. (1986) User center system design. Erlbaum. [JMC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norman, D. A. & Shallice, T. (1980) Attention and action: Willed and automatic behavior. Unpublished paper, Center for Human Information Processing, University of California San Diego. [MVL]Google Scholar
Parnas, L. (1985) Software aspects of strategic defence systems. American Scientist 73:432–30. [PCD]Google Scholar
Pashler, H. & Johnston, J. C. (1989) Chronometric evidence for central postponement in temporally overlapping tasks. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 41A: 19–45. [RWR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payne, J. W., Bettman, J. R. & Johnson, E. J. (1992) Behavioral decision research: A constructive processing perspective. Annual Review of Psychology 43:87–131. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peck, V. A. & John, B. E. (1992) Browser-Soar: A computational model of a highly interactive task. Proceedings of CHI'92 Conference, May. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penrose, R. (1989) The emperor's new mind. Oxford University Press. [PCD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, R. S. (1958) The concept of motivation. Routledge & Kegan Paul. [PCD]Google Scholar
Peters, R. S. (1969) Motivation, emotion, and the conceptual schemes of common sense. In: Human action, ed. Mischel, T.. Academic Press. [PCD]Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1967) Études sociologiques. Droz. [CP]Google Scholar
Pitts, W. H. & McCulloch, W. S. (1947) How we know Universals: The perception of auditory and visual forms. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 9:127–47. [PCD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polk, T. A. & Newell, A. (1988) Modeling human syllogistic reasoning in Soar. Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Annual Conference, 1988 (August). Cognitive Science Society. [rAN]Google Scholar
Polk, T. A. & Newell, A. (in preparation) A verbal reasoning theory of categorical syllogism. [rAN]Google Scholar
Polk, T. A., Newell, A. & Lewis, R. L. (1989) Toward a unified theory of immediate reasoning in Soar. Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Annual Conference, 1989 (August). Cognitive Science Society. [rAN]Google Scholar
Polk, T. A., Newell, A. & VanLehn, K. (1991) Analysis of symbolic parameter models: A new technique for fitting models in cognitive science. Unpublished technical report, School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University. [rAN]Google Scholar
Pomerantz, J. R., Kaplan, S. & Kaplan, R. (1969) Satiation effects in the perception of single letters. Perception & Psychophysics 6:129–32. [EC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Premack, D. (1986) Gavagail or the future history of the animal language controversy. MIT Press. [PCD, DQ]Google Scholar
Proctor, R. W. & Reeve, T. G., eds. (1990) Stimulus-response compatibility: An integrated perspective. North-Holland. [RWP]Google Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1984) Computation and cognition: Towards a foundation for cognitive science. MIT Press. [JAM]Google Scholar
Quiatt, D. & Reynolds, V. (1992) Primate behaviour: Information, social cognition, and the evolution of culture (in press). Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [DQ]Google Scholar
Quinlan, J. R. (1986) Induction of decision trees. Machine Learning 1:81–106. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapaport, D., ed. (1951) Organization and pathology of thought. Columbia University Press. [CP]Google Scholar
Ratcliff, R. (1985) Theoretical interpretations of the speed and accuracy of positive and negative responses. Psychological Review 92:212–25. [aAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reddy, R. & Newell, A. (1974) Knowledge and its representations in a speech understanding system. In: Knowledge and cognition, ed. Gregg, L. W.. Erlbaum. [MVL]Google Scholar
Reisberg, D., Rappoport, I. & O'Shaughnessy, M. (1984) Limits of working memory: The digit span-digit. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 10:203–21. [RAC]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. & Wagner, A. R. (1972) A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In: Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [rAN]Google Scholar
Resnikoff, H. L. (1989) The illusion of reality. Springer-Verlag. [SKC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roitblat, H. L. & Von Fersen, L. (1992) Comparitive cognition: Representations and processes in learning and memory. Annual Review of Psychology 43:671–710. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rolls, E. T., Baylis, G. C. & Leonard, C. M. (1985) Role of low and high spatial frequencies in the face-selective responses of neurons in the cortex in the superior temporal sulcus in the monkey. Vision Research 25(8): 1021–35. [WMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B., eds. (1978) Cognition and categorization. Erlbaum. [rAN]Google Scholar
Rosenbloom, P. S., Laird, J. E., McDermott, J., Newell, A. & Orciuch, E. (1985) R1-Soar: An experiment in knowledge-intensive programming in a problem solving architecture. Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 7:561–69. [aAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenbloom, P. S., Laird, J. E. & Newell, A. (1987) Knowledge-level learning in Soar. Proceedings of AAAI-87. Morgan Kaufman. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenbloom, P. S., Laird, J. E. & Newell, A. (1988) The chunking of skill and knowledge. In: Working models of human perception, ed. Bouma, H. & Elsendoom, B. A. G.. Academic Press. [rAN]Google Scholar
Rosenbloom, P. S. & Newell, A. (1986) The chunking of goal hierarchies: A generalized model of practice. In: Machine learning: An artificial intelligence approach II, ed. Michalski, R. S., Carbonell, J. & Mitchell, T.. Morgan Kaufman. [MVL]Google Scholar
Rosenbloom, P. S., Newell, A. & Laird, J. E. (1991) Toward the knowledge level in Soar: The role of the architecture in the use of knowledge. In: Architectures for intelligence, ed. VanLehn, K.. Erlbaum. [SAV]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L. & the PDP Research Group (1986) Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, vol. I, Foundations. Bradford/MIT Press. [MVL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salthouse, T. (1986) Perceptual, cognitive, and motoric aspects of transcription typing. Psychological Bulletin 99:303–19. [aAN, SKC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saunders, A. (1984) Ten symposia on attention and performance: Some issues and trends. In: Attention and performance X, control of language processes, ed. Bouma, H. & Bouwhuis, D. G.. Erlbaum. [SKC]Google Scholar
Savelsbergh, G. J. P., Whiting, H. T. A. & Bootsma, R. J. (1991) Grasping tau. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 17:315–22. [KJV]Google ScholarPubMed
Schank, R. C. (1972) Conceptual dependency: A theory of natural language understanding. Cognitive Psychology 3:552–631. [CP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schank, R. C. (1982) Dynamic memory: A theory of reminding and learning in computers and people. Cambridge University Press (Cambridge). [RWR]Google Scholar
Schleidt, W. M. (1988) The eye illusion. Archives of Psychology 140(2): 137–40. [WMS]Google ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, R. A., Zelaznik, H., Hawkins, B., Frank, J. S. & Quinn, J. T. Jr., (1979) Motor-output variability: A theory for the accuracy of rapid motor acts. Psychological Review 86:415–51. [RWP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schweickert, R. (1978) A critical path generalization of the additive factor method: Analysis of a Stroop task. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 18:105–39. [JTT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schweickert, R. & Townsend, J. T. (1989) A trichotomy: Interactions of factors prolonging sequential and concurrent mental processes in stochastic discrete mental (PERT) networks. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 33(3):328–47. [JTT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Searle, J. R. (1980) Minds, brains, and programs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:417–57. [rAN, LG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Searle, J. R. (1990) Consciousness, explanatory inversion, and cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:585–42. [PCD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seibel, R. (1963) Discrimination reaction time for a 1023-alternative task. Journal of Experimental Psychology 66:215–26. [MVL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seifert, C. M. & Hutchins, E. L. (in press) Error as opportunity: Learning in a situated task. Journal of Human-Computer Interaction. [RWR]Google Scholar
Selz, O. (1922) Zur Psychologie des produktiven Denkens und des Irrtum. Bonn: Cohen. [CP]Google Scholar
Shiffrin, R. M. & Schneider, W. (1977) Controlled and automatic human information processing, II: Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review 84:127–90. [MVL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, T. R. & Schmidt, W. C. (1991) A Cascade-Correlation model of balance scale phenomena. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Erlbaum. [rAN, TRS]Google Scholar
Siegler, R. S. (1976) Three aspects of cognitive development. Cognitive Psychology 8:481–520. [arAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegler, R. S. (1981) Developmental sequences between and within concepts. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 46:whole no. 189. [TRS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegler, R. S. & Jenkins, E. (1989) How children discover new strategies. Erlbaum. [TRS]Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1991) Models of my life. Basic Books. [CP, KJV]Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. & Feigenbaum, E. A. (1964) An information-processing theory of some effects of similarity, familiarization, and meaningfulness in verbal learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 3:385–96. [aAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, H. A. & Kaplan, C. (1989) Foundation of cognitive science. In: Foundations of cognitive science, ed. Posner, M.-I.. MIT Press. [NHF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, H. A. & Kotovsky, K. (1963) Human acquisition of concepts for sequential patterns. Psychological Review 70:534–46. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, T., Newell, A. & Klahr, D. (1991) Q-Soar: A computational account of children's learning about number conservation. In: Computational approaches to concept formation, ed. Fisher, D. & Pazzani, M.. Morgan Kauffrnan. [rAN]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1957) Verbal behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [DB, CP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smolensky, P. (1988) On the proper treatment of connectionism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:1–74. [rAN, EC, CP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snoddy, G. S. (1926) Learning and stability. Journal of Applied Psychology 10:1–36. [SKC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solomon, H. Y., Turvey, M. T. & Burton, G. (1989) Perceiving extents of rods by wielding: Haptic diagonalization and decomposition of the inertia tensor. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 15:58–68. [KJV]Google ScholarPubMed
Sondheimer, N. K. (1989) The rate of progress in natural language processing. In: Theoretical issues in natural language processing, ed. Wilkes, Y.. Erlbaum. [SAV]Google Scholar
Sowa, J. F. (1991) Towards a reintegration of AI research. In: Future directions in artificial intelligence, ed. Flach, P. A. & Meersman, R. A.. North-Holland. [SAV]Google Scholar
Sperber, D. (1984) Anthropology and psychology: Towards an epidemiology of representations. Man 20:73–89. [CP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sperling, G. (1960) The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs 74(11): whole no. 498. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steier, D. M. (1989) Automating algorithm design within an architecture for general intelligence. Ph.D. dissertation, Computer Science, Carnegie-Mellon University. [aAN]Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. (1966) High-speed scanning in human memory. Science 153:652–54. [MVL, SL, JTT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sternberg, S. (1975) Memory scanning: New findings and current controversies. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 27:1–32. [aAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. & Detterman, D. K., eds. (1979) Human intelligence, Perspectives on its theory and measurement. Ablex. [rAN]Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1903) Educational Psychology. Lemke & Buechner. [aAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townsend, J. T. (1971) A note on the identifiability of parallel and serial processes. Perception & Psychophysics 10:161–63. [JTT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townsend, J. T. (1975) The mind-body equation revisited. In: Philosophical aspects of the mind-body problem, ed. C.-Y. Cheng. [JTT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townsend, J. T. (1990) Serial vs. parallel processing: Sometimes they look like Tweedledum and Tweedledee but they can (and should) be distinguished. Psychological Science 1:46–54. [rAN, SL, JTI]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Townsend, J. T. & Ashby, F. G. (1983) Stochastic modeling of elementary psychological processes. Cambridge University Press. (Cambridge). [JTT]Google Scholar
Townsend, J. T. & Schweickert, R. (1985) Interactive effects of factors affecting processes in stochastic PERT networks. In: Cognition, information processing, and motivation, ed. d'Ydewalle, G.. North-Holland. [JIT]Google Scholar
Treisman, A. & Gelade, G. (1980) A feature integration theory of attention. Cognitive Psychology 12:97–136. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treisman, A. & Gormican, S. (1988) Feature analysis in early vision: Evidence from search asymmetries. Psychological Review 95:15–48. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treisman, A. & Schmidt, H. (1982) Illusory conjunctions in the perception of objects. Cognitive Psychology 14:107–41. [rAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tulving, E. (1983) Elements of episodic memory. Oxford University Press. [arAN]Google Scholar
Urmson, J. O. (1956) Philosophical analysis: Its development between the two World Wars. Clarendon Press. [PCD]Google Scholar
Uttal, W. R. (1990) On some two-way barriers between models and mechanisms. Perception & Psychophysics 48:188–203. [WRU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uttal, W. R., Bradshaw, G., Dayanand, S., Lovell, R., Shepherd, T., Kakarala, R., Skifsted, K. & Tupper, G. (1992) The swimmer: An integrated computational model of a perceptual-motor system. Erlbaum. [WRU]Google Scholar
VanLehn, K. (1991) Rule acquisition events in the discovery of problemsolving strategies. Cognitive Science 15:1–47. [TRS]Google Scholar
Vere, S. A. & Bickmore, T. W. (1990) A basic agent. Computational Intelligence 6:41–60. [SAV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Helmholtz, H. (1971) The origin and correct interpretation of our sense impressions. In: Selected writings of Hermann von Helmholtz, ed. Kahl, R.. Wesleyan University Press. [LG]Google Scholar
von Neumann, J. (1966) Theory of self-reproducing automata. University of Illinois Press. [LG]Google Scholar
Wallechinsky, D., Wallace, I. & Wallace, A. (1977) The book of lists. William Morrow. [rAN]Google Scholar
Warren, W. H. Jr., & Hannon, D. J. (1988) Direction of self-motion is perceived from optical flow. Nature 336:162–63. [KJV]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, W. H. Jr., & Whang, S. (1987) Visual guidance of walking through apertures: Body-scaled information about affordances. Journal of Experimental psychology: Human Perception and Performance 13:371–83. [KJV]Google ScholarPubMed
Watanabe, S. (1985) Pattern recognition: Human and mechanical. Wiley. [LG]Google Scholar
Wertheimer, M. (1945) Productive thinking. Wiley. [CP]Google Scholar
Wetherick, N. E. (1989) Psychology and syllogistic reasoning. Philosophical Psychology 2:111–24. [rAN, NEW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wetherick, N. E. & Gilhooly, K. J. (1990) Syllogistic reasoning: Effects of premise order. In: Lines of thinking, vol. 1, ed. Gilhooly, K. J., Keane, M. T. G., Logie, R. H. & Erdos, G.. Wiley. [rAN, NEW]Google Scholar
Whorf, B. L. (1956) A linguistic consideration of thinking in primitive communities. In: Language, thought, and reality – selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, ed. Carroll, J. B.. MIT Press. [WMS]Google Scholar
Wiesmeyer, M. D. (1992) An operator-based model of human covert visual attention. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, CSE-TR-123–92. [rAN]Google Scholar
Wiesmeyer, M. & Laird, J. (1990) A computer model of 2D visual attention. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, July. [rAN]Google Scholar
Wilson, E. O. (1975) Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Harvard University Press. [rAN]Google Scholar
Winograd, S. (1964) Input-error-limiting automata. Journal of the Association of Computing Machinery 11:338–51. [JTT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witten, E. (1988) Interview with Edward Witten. In: Superstrings: A theory of everything? ed. Davies, P. C. W. & Brown, J.. Cambridge University Press. [LG]Google Scholar
Wolfe, J. M., Cave, K. R. & Franzel, S. L. (1989) Guided search: An alternative to the feature integration model for visual search. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 15:419–33. [rAN]Google Scholar