Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T23:11:38.914Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Toward a theory of human memory: Data structures and access processes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Michael S. Humphreys ,
Janet Wiles  and
Simon Dennis
Michael S. Humphreys
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia Electronic mail: [email protected]
Janet Wiles
Affiliation:
Departments of Psychology and Computer Science, The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia
Simon Dennis
Affiliation:
Department of Computer Science, The University of Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Starting from Marr's ideas about levels of explanation, a theory of the data structures and access processes in human memory is demonstrated on 10 tasks. Functional characteristics of human memory are captured implementation-independently. Our theory generates a multidimensional task classification subsuming existing classifications such as the distinction between tasks that are implicit versus explicit, data driven versus conceptually driven, and simple associative (two-way bindings) versus higher order (threeway bindings), providing a broad basis for new experiments. The formal language clarifies the binding problem in episodic memory, the role of input pathways in both episodic and semantic (lexical) memory, the importance of the input set in episodic memory, and the ubiquitous calculation of an intersection in theories of episodic and lexical access.

Keywords

amnesiabindingcontextdata structurelexical decisionmemory accessperceptual identificationrecallrecognitionrepresentation
Type
Research Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 17 , Issue 4 , December 1994 , pp. 655 - 667
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, J. A. (1990) Hybrid computation in cognitive science: Neural networks and symbols. Applied Cognitive Psychology 4:337–47. [GT]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1983) The architecture of cognition. Harvard University Press. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Bower, C. H. (1972) Recognition and retrieval processes in free recall. Psychological Review 79:97–123. [arMSH]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Bower, C. H. (1973) Human associative memory. Winston & Son. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Milson, R. (1989) Human memory: An adaptive perspective. Psychological Review 96:703–20. [arMSH]Google Scholar
Bain, J. D. & Humphreys, M. S. (1988) Relational context: Independent cues, meanings or configurations? In: Memory in context: Context in memory, ed. Thomson, D. M. & Davies, G. M.. Wiley & Sons. [GT]Google Scholar
Bain, J. D. & Humphreys, M. S. (1989) Instructional reinstatement of context: The forgotten prerequisite. In: Proceedings of the 24th international congress of psychology, vol. 3, ed. McConkey, K. & Bennett, A.. Elsevier. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Balota, D. A. & Chumbley, J. I. (1984) Are lexical decisions a good measure of lexical access? The role of word frequency in the neglected decision stage. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 10:340–57. [rMSH, AMJ]Google Scholar
Baron, J. (1985) Back to basics. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:706. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Barsalou, L. W. (1987) The instability of graded structure: Implications for the nature of concepts. In: Concepts and conceptual development: Ecological factors in categorization, ed. Neisser, U.. Cambridge University Press. [FvdV]Google Scholar
Bechtel, W. & Richardson, R. C. (1993) Discovering complexity: Decomposition and localization as strategies in scientific research. Princeton University Press. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Becker, C. A. (1980) Semantic context effects in visual word recognition: An analysis of semantic strategies. Memory & Cognition 8:493–512. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Békésy, G. von (1967) Sensory inhibition. Princeton University Press. [DJM]Google Scholar
Bernstein, I. H. & Welch, K. R. (1991) Awareness, false recognition, and the Jacoby-Whitehouse effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Ceneral 120:324–28. [arMSH]Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. E. (1985) A question of levels: Comment on McClelland and Rumelhart. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 114:189–92. [FvdV]Google Scholar
Butters, N. & Cermak, L. S. (1980) Alcoholic Korsakoff's Syndrome: An information processing approach to amnesia. Academic Press. [MO-B]Google Scholar
Caramazza, A. & Hillis, A. (1990) Levels of representation, coordinate frames, and unilateral neglect. Cognitive Neuropsychology 7:391–445. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Caramazza, A. & Miceli, G. (1990) The structure of graphemic representations. Cognition 37:243–97. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Caramazza, A., Laudanna, A. & Romani, C. (1988) Lexical access and inflectional morphology. Cognition 28:297–332. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Carr, T. H. (1992) Automaticity and cognitive anatomy: Is word recognition “automatic”? American Journal of Psychology 105:201–37. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Chappell, M. & Humphreys, M. S. (1994) An auto-associative neural network for sparse representations: Analysis and application to models of recognition and cued recall. Psychological Review 101:103–28. [arMSH, RAH, AMJ]Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT Press. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B., Kallgren, C. A. & Reno, R. R. (1991) A focus theory of normative conduct: A theoretical refinement and reevaluation of the roles of norms in human behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 24:201–34. [YK]Google Scholar
Collins, A. M. & Loftus, E. F. (1975) A spreading activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review 82:407–28. [SK]Google Scholar
Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P. & Haller, M. (1993) Models of reading aloud: Dual-rout approaches and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review 100:589–608. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Coltheart, M., Davelaar, E., Jonasson, J. T. & Besner, D. (1977) Access to the internal lexicon. In: Attention and performance VI, ed. Dornic, S.. Academic Press. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Content, A., Mousty, P. & Radeau, M. (1990) BRULEX: Une base de donnéies lexicales informatisée pour le Francais écrit et parlé. Année Psychologique 90:551–66. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. & Lockhart, R. S. (1972) Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Behavior 11:671–84. [RLG]Google Scholar
Crick, F. (1989) The recent excitement about neural networks. Nature 337:129–32. [IJM]Google Scholar
Crutchfield, J. P. & Mitchell, M. (in press) The evolution of emergent computation. Science. [TC]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1991) Consciousness explained. Little, Brown and Co. [rMSH, TC]Google Scholar
Dodwell, P. C. (1983) The lie transformation group model of visual perception. Perception and Psychophysics 34:1–16. [TC]Google Scholar
(1993) From the top down. Canadian Psychology 34:137–51. [DJM]Google Scholar
Dunn, J. C. & Kirsner, K. (1989) Implicit memory: Task or process. In: Implicit memory: Theoretical issues, ed. Lewandowsky, S., Dunn, J. C. & Kirsner, K.. Erlbaum. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Eichenbaum, H., Otto, T., & Cohen, N. J. (1994) Two functional components of the hippocampal memory system. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (3):449–72. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Fazio, R. H. (1986) How do attitudes guide behavior? In: Handbook of motivation and cognition, ed. Sorrentino, R. M. & Higgins, E. T.. Guilford Press. [YK]Google Scholar
Fechner, G. T. (1860/1964) Elemente der Psychophysik, vols. 1 and 2. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel. (Reprinted 1964 E.J. Bonset). [DJM]Google Scholar
Feldman, J. A. & Ballard, D. H. (1982) Connectionist models and their properties. Cognitive Science 6:205–54. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Flexser, A. L. & Tulving, E. (1978) Retrieval independence in recognition and recall. Psychological Review 85:153–71. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Frauenfelder, U., Baayen, R. H., Hellwig, F. M. & Schreuder, R. (1993) Neighborhood density and frequency across languages and modalities. Journal of Memory and Language 32:781–804. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Gaffan, D. (1974) Recognition impaired and association intact in the memory of monkeys after transection of the fornix. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 86:1100–1109. [aMSH, MO-B]Google Scholar
Gardiner, J. M. & Java, R. I. (1990) Recollective experience in word and nonword recognition. Memory & Cognition 18:23–30. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin. [SAS]Google Scholar
Graf, P. & Schacter, D. (1985) Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 11:501–18. [arMSH]Google Scholar
Graf, P., Squire, L. R. & Mandler, G. (1984) The information that amnesic patients do not forget. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 10:164–78. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Grainger, J. (1992) Orthographic neighborhoods and visual word recognition. In: Orthography, phonology, morphology, and meaning, ed. Frost, R. & Katz, L.. Amsterdam: North-Holland. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Grainger, J. & Jacobs, A. M. (1993a) Masked partial-word priming in visual word recognition: Effects of positional letter frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 19:951–64. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Grainger, J. & Jacobs, A. M. (1993b) Modeling neighborhood effects in lexical decision. Paper presented at the 34th Annual Meeting of The Psychonomic Society, Washington, DC. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Grainger, J. & Jacobs, A. M. (1994) A dual-read out model of word context effects in letter perception: Further investigations of the word superiority effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 6. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Grainger, J. & Jacobs, A. M. (submitted) A three-process model of lexical decision and word recognition. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Grainger, J., O'Regan, J. K., Jacobs, A. M. & Segui, J. (1989) On the role of competing word units in visual word recognition: The neighborhood frequency effect. Perception & Psychophysics 45:189–95. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Grainger, J., O'Regan, J. K., Jacobs, A. M. (1992) Neighborhood frequency effects and letter visibility in visual word recognition. Perception & Psychophysics 51:49–56. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Haist, F., Shimamura, A. P. & Squire, L. R. (1992) On the relationship between recall and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 18:691–702. [SK]Google Scholar
Halford, G. S., Wilson, W. H., Guo, J., Wiles, J. & Stewart, J. E. M. (in press) Connectionist implications for processing capacity limitations in analogies. In: Advances in connectionist and neural computation theory. Vol. 2: Analogical connections, ed. Holyoak, K. J. & Barnden, J.. Able. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Hayman, C. G. & Tulving, E. (1989) Contingent dissociation between recognition and fragment completion: The method of triangulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 15:228–40. [SK]Google Scholar
Heath, R. A. (1993) A nonlinear model for human associative memory based on error accumulation. In: Proceedings of the fourth Australian conference on neural networks, ed. Leong, P. & Jabri, M.. University of Sydney Electrical Engineering. [RAH]Google Scholar
Heathcote, A. (1993) Episodic ART: A model of episodic recognition memory. Proceedings of the World Congress on Neural Networks 2:194–97. [RAH]Google Scholar
Helson, H. (1964) Adaptation-level theory: An experimental and systematic approach to behaviour. Harper & Sons. [DJM]Google Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (1986) Schema abstraction in a multiple trace memory model. Psychological Review 93:429–45. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (1987) Recognition and recall in MINERVA 2: Analysis of the recognition failure paradigm. In: Modelling cognition, ed. Morris, P.. Wiley. [GT]Google Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (1990) Human learning and memory connections and dissociations. Annual Revieiv of Psychology 41:103–39. [GT]Google Scholar
Hobbs, M. (1992) RISC/CISC development and test support. Prentice Hall. [RAH]Google Scholar
Hoffman, W. C. & Dodwell, P. C. (1985) Geometric psychology generates the visual Gestalt. Canadian Journal of Psychology 39:491–. [DJM]Google Scholar
Humphreys, M. S. (1976) Relational information and the context effect in recognition memory. Memory & Cognition 4:221–31. [GT]Google Scholar
Humphreys, M. S. & Bain, J. D. (1983) Recognition memory: A cue and information analysis. Memory & Cognition 11:583–600. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Humphreys, M. S. & Bain, J. D. (1992) Episodic and strength components in recognition memory. In: Relating theory and data: Essays in honor of Bennet B. Murdock, ed. Hockley, W. & Lewandowsky, S.. Erlbaum. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Humphreys, M.S., Bain, J. D. & Burt, J. S. (1989a) Episodically unique and generalized memories: Applications to human and animal amnesics. In: Implicit memory: Theoretical issues, ed. Lewandowsky, S., Dunn, J. C. & Kirsner, K.. Erlbaum. [arMSH]Google Scholar
Humphreys, M. S., Bain, J. D. & Pike, R. (1989b) Different ways to cue a coherent memory system: A theory for episodic, semantic and procedural tasks. Psychological Review 96:208–33. [arMSH, KM]Google Scholar
Humphreys, M. S. & Dennis, S. (1994) Going from task descriptions to memory descriptions. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (3):483. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Humphreys, M. S., Wiles, J. & Bain, J. D. (1993) Memory retrieval with two cues: Think of intersecting sets. In: Attention and performance XIV: Synergies in experimental psychology, artificial intelligence, and cognitive neuropsychology – a silver jubilee. MIT Press. [arMSH, MO-B]Google Scholar
Huppert, F. A. & Piercy, M. (1976) Recognition memory in amnesic patients: Effect of temporal context and familiarity of material. Cortex 12:3–20. [SK]Google Scholar
Jacobs, A. M. (1987) On localization and saccade programming. Vision Research 27:1953–66. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Jacobs, A. M. & Grainger, J. (1992) Testing a semistochastic variant of the interactive activation model in different word recognition experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 18:1174–8. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Jacobs, A. M. & Grainger, J. (1994) Models of visual recognition: Sampling the state of the art. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 6. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Jacobs, A. M., Heller, D. & Nazir, T. A. (1992) Moglithkeiten einer experimentellen Dyslexieforschung auf der Basis der aktuellcn Lesepsychologie. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologic 51:26–42. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. (1983a) Remembering the data: Analyzing interactive processes in reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 22:485–508. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. (1983b) Perceptual enhancement: Persistent effects of an experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 9:21–38. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. (1991) A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language 30:513–41. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. & Dallas, M. (1981) On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 110:21–38. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. & Hollingshead, A. (1990) Toward a generate/recognize model of performance on direct and indirect tests of memory. Journal of Memory and Language 29:433–54. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Johnston, W. A., Dark, V. J. & Jacoby, L. L. (1985) Perceptual fluency and recognition judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 11:3–11. [SK]Google Scholar
Johnston, W. A., Hawley, K. J. & Elliott, M. G. (1991) Contribution of perceptual fluency to recognition judgments. Journal of Experimental sychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 17:210–23. [SK]Google Scholar
Jones, G. V. (1978) Recognition failure and dual mechanisms in recall. Psychological Review 85:464–69. [GT]Google Scholar
Kanerva, P. (1988) Sparse distributed memory. MIT Press. [TC]Google Scholar
Kashima, Y. & Gallois, C. (1993) The theory of reasoned action and problemfocused research. In: The theory of reasoned action, ed. Terry, D. J., Gallois, C. & McCamish, M.. Pergamon Press. [YK]Google Scholar
Kashima, Y. & Kerekes, A. (1994) A distributed memory model of averaging phenomena in person impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. In press. [YK]Google Scholar
Kohler, W. (1969) The task of Gestalt psychology. Princeton University Press. [DJM]Google Scholar
Kosslyn, S. M. & Intriligator, J. M. (1992) Is cognitive neuropsychology plausible? The perils of sitting on a one-legged stool. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 4:96–106. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Laming, D. (1986) Sensory analysis. Academic Press. [DJM]Google Scholar
Lindsay, D. S. (1991) CHARMed, but not convinced: Comment on Metcalfe. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Ceneral 120:101–05. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Link, S. W. (1992) The wave theory of difference and similarity. Erlbaum. [DJM]Google Scholar
Mahut, H., Zola-Morgan, S. M. & Moss, M. (1982) Hippocampal resections impair associative learning and recognition memory in the monkey. The Journal of Neuroscience 2:1214–29. [Mo-B]Google Scholar
Mandler, G. (1980) Recognizing: The judgment of previous occurrence. Psychological Review 87:252–71. [aMSH, SK]Google Scholar
Mandler, G. (1991) Your face looks familiar but I can't remember your name: A review of dual-process theory. In: Relating theory and data: Essays on Human Memory in honor of Bennet B. Murdock, ed. Hockey, W. E. & Lewandowsky, S.. Erlbaum. [GT]Google Scholar
Manelis, L. (1974) The effect of meaningfulness in tachistoscopic word perception. Perception b Psychophysics 16:182–92. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1981) Artificial Intelligence: A personal view. In: Mind design: Philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence. MIT Press. [rMSH, FvdV]Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1982) Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. Freeman. [aMSH, TC, RLG, AMJ, DJM, KM, FvdV]Google Scholar
Marslen-Wilson, W. D. (1987) Functional parallelism in spoken wordrecognition. Cognition 25:71–102. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Martone, M., Becker, J. T., Payne, M. & Butters, N. (1983) Dissociations between skill learning and verbal recognition in amnesia and dementia. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 9:27. [MO-B]Google Scholar
Massaro, D. W. (1987) Speech perception by ear and eye: A paradigm for psychological inquiry. Erlbaum. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Massaro, D. W., Weldon, M. S. & Kitzis, S. N. (1991) Integration of orthographic and semantic information in memory retrieval, journal of Expertimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 17:277–87. [AMJ]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. & Rumelhart, D. E. (1981) An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part I. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review 88:375–407. [AMJ]Google Scholar
McConkie, C. W., Kerr, P. W., Reddix, M. D., Zola, D. & Jacobs, A. M. (1989) Eye movement: control during reading: II. Frequency of refixating a word. Perception O Psychophysics 46:245–53. [AMJ]Google Scholar
McCullers, J. C. (1965) Type of associative interference in verbal pairedassociate learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 4:12–16. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Mcdin, D. L. & Sloben, E. J. (1988) Context and structure in conceptual combination. Cognitice Psychology 20:158–90. [SAS]Google Scholar
Mcdnik, S. A. (1962) The associative basis of the creative process. Psychological Review 69:220–32. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Mctcalfe, J. (1990) Composite holographic associative recall model (CHARM) and blended memories in eyewitness testimony. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 119:145–60. [arMSH]Google Scholar
Mctcalfe-Eich, J. (1982) A composite holographic associative recall model. Psychological Review 89:627–61. [IJM]Google Scholar
Mctcalfe-Eich, J. (1985) Levels of processing, encoding specificity, elaboration and CHARM. Psychological Review 92:1–38. [GT]Google Scholar
Mctcalfe-Eich, J. (1991) Recognition failure and the composite memory trace in CHARM. Psychological Review 98:529–53. [GT]Google Scholar
Mishkin, M. (1993) Behaviorism, cognitivism and the neuropsychology of memory. American Scientist 82:30–37. [MO-B]Google Scholar
Monk, A. F. (1985) Co-ordinate systems in visual word recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 37(A):613–25. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Moscovitch, M. (1989) Confabulation and the frontal system: Strategic vs. associative retrieval in neuropsychological theories of memory. In: Varieties of memory and consciousness: Essays in honor of Endel Tulving, ed. Roediger, H. L. & Craik, F. I. M.. Erlbaum. [SK]Google Scholar
Moscovitch, M. (1992) A neuropsychological model of memory and consciousness. In: Neuropsychology of memory, 2d ed, ed. Squire, L. R. & Butters, N.. Guilford. [SK]Google Scholar
Murdock, B. B. (1974) Human memory: Theory and data. Erlbaum. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Murdock, B. B. (1982) A theory for the retrieval and storage of item and associative information. Psychological Review 89:609–26. [aMSH, IJM]Google Scholar
Murnane, K. & Phelps, M. P. (1993) A global activation approach to the effect of changes in environmental context on recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 19:882–94. [KM]Google Scholar
Murnane, K. & Phelps, M. P. (1994a) When does a different environmental context make a difference in recognition? A global activation model. Memory & Cognition. In press. [KM]Google Scholar
Murnane, K. & Phelps, M. P. (1994b) The effects of changes in relative cue strength on context-dependent recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. In press. [KM]Google Scholar
Murnane, K. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1991) Interference and the representation of events in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 17:855–74. [KM]Google Scholar
Murray, D. J. (1993) A perspective for viewing the history of psychophysics. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16:115–18. [DJM]Google Scholar
Nazir, T. A., Heller, D. & Sussmann, C. (1992) Letter visibility and word recognition: The optimal viewing position in printed words. Perception i: Psychophysics 52:315–28. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Nelson, D. L. & McEvoy, C. L. (1979) Effects of retention interval and modality on sensory and semantic trace information. Memory& Cognition 7:257–62. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Nelson, D. L., Schreiber, T. A. & McEvoy, C. L. (1992) Processing implicit and explicit representations. Psychological Review 99:322–48. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Norman, D. A. (1966) Acquisition and retention in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology 72:369–81. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Norman, D. A. & Wickclgren, W. A. (1965) Short-term recognition memory for single digits and pairs of digits. Journal of Experimental Psychology 70:479–89. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Norris, D. (1986) Word recognition: Context effects without priming. Cognition 22:93–136. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Norwich, K. H. (1993) Information, sensation and perception. Academic Press. [DJM]Google Scholar
O'Regan, J. K. & Jacobs, A. M. (1992) Optimal viewing position effect in word recognition: A challenge to current theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 18:185–97. [AMJ]Google Scholar
O'Regan, J. K., Levy-Schoen, A., Pynte, J. & Brugaill, (1984) Convenient fixation location within isolated words of different length and structure. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Human Perception and Performance 10:250–57. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Oscar-Berman, M. (1984) Comparative neuropsychology and alcoholic Korsakoff's disease. In: Neuropsychology of memory, ed. Squires, L. & Butters, N.. Guilford Press. [MO-B]Google Scholar
Oscar-Berman, M. (1990) Severe brain dysfunction: Alcoholic Korsakoff's syndrome. Alcohol Health and Research World 14:120–29. [MO-B]Google Scholar
Oscar-Berman, M., Pulaski, J. L. & Hutner, N. (in preparation) Association learning and recognition memory in alcoholism and aging. [MO-B]Google Scholar
Paap, K., Newsome, S. L., McDonald, J. E. & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1982) An activation-verification model for letter and word recognition: The word superiority effect. Psychological Review 89:573–94. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Paller, K. A., Mayes, A. R., McDermott, M., Pickering, A. D. & Meudell, P. R. (1991) Indirect measures of memory in duration judgment task are normal in amnesic patients. Neuropsychologia 29:1007–18. [SK]Google Scholar
Parkin, A. J., Leng, N. R. C. & Hudkin, N. M. (1990) Differential sensitivity to context in diencephalic and temporal lobe amnesia. Cortex 26:373–80. [arMSH, MO-B]Google Scholar
Pike, R. (1984) A comparison of convolution and matrix distributed memory systems. Psychological Review 91:281–94. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Carr, T. H. (1992) Lexical access and the brain: Anatomical constraints on cognitive models of word recognition. American Journal of Psychology 105:1–26. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Raaijmakers, J. G. W. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1981) Search of associative memory. Psychological Review 88:93–134. [aMSH, KM]Google Scholar
Rajaram, S. (1993) Remembering and knowing: Two means of access to the personal past. Memory & Cognition 21:89–102. [SK]Google Scholar
Ratcliff, R. (1990) Connectionist models of recognition memory: Constraints imposed by learning and forgetting functions. Psychological Review 97:285–308. [rMSH, RAH]Google Scholar
Ratcliff, R., Clark, S. E. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1990) The list-strength effect: I. Data and discussion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 16:163–78. [RAH]Google Scholar
Richardson-Klavehn, A. & Bjork, R. A. (1988) Measures of memory. Annual Review of Psychology 39:475–543. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Rips, L. J., Shoben, E. J. & Smith, E. E. (1973) Semantic distance and the verification of semantic relations. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 12:1–20. [SK]Google Scholar
Roberts, F. S. (1979) Measurement theory. Addison-Wesley. [IJM]Google Scholar
Rodet, L. & Tiberghien, G. (1994) Toward a dynamic model of associative semantic memory. Journal of Biological Systems. [GT]Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III, Weldon, M. S.. Stadler, M. L. & Riegler, G. L. (1992) Direct comparison of two implicit memory tests: Word fragment and word stem completion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 18:1251–69. [arMSH]Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C. & Wallace, W. T. (1989) Rhyme and reason: Analysis of dual retrieval cues. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 15:698–709. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Schönemann, P. H. (1987) Some algebraic relations between involutions, convolutions, and correlations, with applications to holographic memories. Biological Cybernetics 56:367–74. [IJM]Google Scholar
Schreiber, A-C., Rousset, S. & Tiberghien, G. (1991) Facenet: A connectionist model of face identification in context. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 3:177–98. [GT]Google Scholar
Schweikert, R. (1980) Critical-path scheduling of mental processes in a dual task. Science 209:704–6. [RAH]Google Scholar
Searle, J. R. (1992) The rediscovery of the mind. MIT Press. [rMSH, TC]Google Scholar
Seidenberg, M. S. & McClelland, J. L. (1989) A distributed developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review 96:523–68. [AMJ]Google Scholar
Shanon, B. (1992) Are connectionist models cognitive? Philosophical Psychology 5:235–55. [GT]Google Scholar
Shimamura, A. P., Janowsky, J. S. & Squire, L. R. (1991) What is the role of frontal lobe damage in memory disorders? In: Frontal lobe function and dysfunction, ed. Levin, H. S., Eisenberg, H. M. & Benton, A. L.. Oxford University Press. [SK]Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1969/1981) The sciences of the artificial, 2d ed. MIT Press. [DJM]Google Scholar
Sloman, S. A. & Rumelhart, D. E. (1992) Reducing interference in distributed memories through episodic gating. In: From learning theory to cognitive theory: Essays in honor of William K. Estes, vol. I, ed. Healy, A. F., Kosslyn, S. M. & Shiffrin, R. M.. Erlbaum. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Smolensky, P. (1986) Information processing in dynamical systems: Foundations of harmony theory. In: Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Vol. I: Foundations, ed. Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L., and the PDP Research Group. MIT Press. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Shimamura, A. P. & Squire, L. R. (1986) Memory and meta-memory: A study of the feeling-of-knowing phenomenon in amnesic patients. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12:452–60. [SK]Google Scholar
Squire, L. R., Shimanmra, A. P. & Graf, P. (1985) Independence of recognition memory and priming effects: A neuropsychological analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 11:37–44. [SK]Google Scholar
Srull, T. K. & Wyer, R. S. (1989) Person memory and judgment. Psychological Review 96:58–83. [rMSH]Google Scholar
Sutherland, R. W. & Ruddy, J. W. (1989) Configural association theory: The role of the hippocampal formation in learning, memory, and amnesia. Psychobiology 17:129–44. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Tiberghien, G. (1981) Étude experimentale de I'activité de recherche mnesique dans la reconnaissance à long-terme [Experimental study of search process in long-term recognition]. L'Anndé Psychologique 8:385–408. [GT]Google Scholar
Tiberghien, G. (1982) Étude comparative de cinq modeles de la reconnaissance mnesique à long-termc [A comparative study of five long-term recognition memory models]. CPC: European Bulletin of Cognitive Psychology 2:31–48. [GT]Google Scholar
Tiberghien, G. (1984) Just how does ecphory work? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7:255–56. [GT]Google Scholar
Tiberghien, G. (1986) Context effects in recognition memory for faces: Some theoretical problems. In: Aspects of face processing, ed. Ellis, H. D., Malcolm, A., Jeeves, R., Newcombe, F. & Young, A.. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. [GT]Google Scholar
Tiberghien, G. (1989) Face processing and face semantics. In: Handbook of research on face processing, ed. Young, A. W. & Ellis, H. D.. North Holland Publishing. [GT]Google Scholar
Tiberghien, G. (1993) Questions de modelisation et de simulation cognitives [Problems in cognitive models and computer simulation]. In: Intelligence naturelle et intelligence artificiclle [Natural intelligence and artificial intelligence], ed. Le Ny, J-F. Presses Universitaires de France. [GT]Google Scholar
Tiberghien, G., Cauzinille, E. & Mathieu, J. (1979) Pre-decision and conditional search in long-term recognition memory. Acta Psychologica 43:329–43. [GT]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1972) Episodic and semantic memory. In: Organization of Memory, ed. Tulving, E. & Donaldson, W.. Academic Press. [aSMH, RLG]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1983) Elements of episodic memory. Oxford University Press. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. & Schacter, D. L. (1990) Priming and human memory systems. Science 247:301–96. [aMSH, DJM]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. & Thomson, D. M. (1973) Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review 80:352–73. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Underwood, B. J. (1957) Interference and forgetting. Psychological Review 64:49–60. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Underwood, B. J. (1977) Temporal codes for memories: Issues and problems. Erlbaum. [RLG]Google Scholar
Underwood, B. J. & Humphreys, M. S. (1979) Context change and the role of meaning in word recognition. American Journal of Psychology 96:58–83. [rMSH]Google Scholar
van Gelder, T. (1991) Representation in connectionist models. In: Philosophy and connectionist theory, ed. Ramsey, W., Rumelhart, D. & Stich, S.. Erlbaum. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K. & Weiskrantz, L. (1970) Amnesic syndrome: Consolidation or retrieval? Nature 228:628–30. [MO-B]Google Scholar
Watkins, M. J. (1981) Human memory and the information processing metaphor. Cognition 10:331–36. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Watkins, M. J. & Gibson, J. M. (1988) On the relations between perceptual priming and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 14:477–83. [SK]Google Scholar
Weber, E. U. & Murdock, B. B. (1989) Priming in a distributed memory system: Implications for models of implicit memory. In: Implicit memory: Theoretical Issues, ed. Lewandowsky, S., Dunn, J. C. & Kirsner, K.. Erlbaum. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Wiles, J. & Humphreys, M. S. (1993) Using artificial neural networks to model implicit and explicit memory. In: Implicit memory: Sew directions in cognition, development, and neuropsychology, ed. Graf, P. & Masson, M.. Erlbaum. [arMSH]Google Scholar
Wiles, J., Halford, G. S., Stewart, J. E. M., Humphreys, M. S., Bain, J. D. & Wilson, W. H. (1994) Tensor models: A creative basis for memory retrieval and analogical mapping. In: Artificial intelligence and creativity, ed. Dartnall, T.. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Wiles, J., Humphreys, M. S., Bain, J. D. & Dennis, S. J. (1991) Direct memory access using two cues: Finding the intersection of sets in a connectionist model. In: Advances in neural infoniiation processing systems 3, ed. Lippman, R. P., Moody, J. E. & Touretzky, D. S.. Morgan Kaufman. [aMSH]Google Scholar
Wolff, C. (1734/1972) Psychologia rationalis. Reprinted in Christian Wolff: Cesammclte Werke, Part II,. vol. 6, ed. Ecole, J.. Georg Olms. [DJM]Google Scholar