Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T18:57:42.222Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sex, attachment, and the development of reproductive strategies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2009

Marco Del Giudice
Marco Del Giudice
Affiliation:
Center for Cognitive Science, Department of Psychology, University of Turin, 10123 Torino, [email protected]://www.psych.unito.it/csc/pers/delgiudice/delgiudice.html
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This target article presents an integrated evolutionary model of the development of attachment and human reproductive strategies. It is argued that sex differences in attachment emerge in middle childhood, have adaptive significance in both children and adults, and are part of sex-specific life history strategies. Early psychosocial stress and insecure attachment act as cues of environmental risk, and tend to switch development towards reproductive strategies favoring current reproduction and higher mating effort. However, due to sex differences in life history trade-offs between mating and parenting, insecure males tend to adopt avoidant strategies, whereas insecure females tend to adopt anxious/ambivalent strategies, which maximize investment from kin and mates. Females are expected to shift to avoidant patterns when environmental risk is more severe. Avoidant and ambivalent attachment patterns also have different adaptive values for boys and girls, in the context of same-sex competition in the peer group: in particular, the competitive and aggressive traits related to avoidant attachment can be favored as a status-seeking strategy for males. Finally, adrenarche is proposed as the endocrine mechanism underlying the reorganization of attachment in middle childhood, and the implications for the relationship between attachment and sexual development are explored. Sex differences in the development of attachment can be fruitfully integrated within the broader framework of adaptive plasticity in life history strategies, thus contributing to a coherent evolutionary theory of human development.

Keywords

adrenarcheattachmentcooperative breedingevolutionlife history theorymatingmiddle childhoodphenotypic plasticityreproductive strategiessexual selectionstress
Type
Main Articles
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 32 , Issue 1 , February 2009 , pp. 1 - 21
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adkins-Regan, E. (2005) Hormones and animal social behavior. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ahnert, L. (2005) Parenting and alloparenting: The impact on attachment in humans. In: Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis, ed. Carter, C. S., Ahnert, L., Grossmann, K. E., Hrdy, S. B., Lamb, M. E., Porges, S.W. & Sachser, N., pp. 229–44. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E. & Wall, S. (1978) Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Allen, E. S. & Baucom, D. H. (2004) Adult attachment and patterns of extradyadic involvement. Family Process 43:467–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, J. P. & Land, D. (1999) Attachment in adolescence. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R., pp. 355–77. Guilford.Google Scholar
Andersson, M. (1994) Sexual selection. Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J. & Mehdikhani, M. (2000) Strategic pluralism: Men and women start from a different point. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23:588.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auchus, R. J. & Rainey, W. E. (2004) Adrenarche – physiology, biochemistry and human disease. Clinical Endocrinology 60:288–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aviezer, O., Sagi, A., Resnick, G. & Gini, M. (2002) School competence in young adolescence: Links to early attachment relationships beyond concurrent self-perceived competence and representations of relationships. International Journal of Behavioral Development 26:397–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bokhorst, C. L. & Schuengel, C. (2004) The importance of shared environment in infant-father attachment: A behavioral genetic study of the Attachment Q-sort. Journal of Family Psychology 18:545–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baldwin, M. W. & Fehr, B. (1995) On the instability of attachment style ratings. Personal Relationships 2:247–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barber, N. (2000) On the relationship between country sex ratios and teen pregnancy rates: A replication. Cross-Cultural Research 34:26–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartholomew, K. (1990) Avoidance of intimacy: An attachment perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 7:147–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartholomew, K. & Horowitz, L. M. (1991) Attachment styles in young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61:226–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bateson, P. (2005) The return of the whole organism. Journal of Biosciences 30:101–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. (1997a) Attachment, mating and parenting: An evolutionary interpretation. Human Nature 8:361–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. (1997b) Variation in susceptibility to environmental influence: An evolutionary argument. Psychological Inquiry 8:82–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J. (1999) Modern evolutionary theory and patterns of attachment. In: Handbook of Attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R., pp. 141–61. Guilford.Google Scholar
Belsky, J. (2000) Fixed versus flexible strategies: Individual differences in facultative responsiveness? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23:591–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J. (2002) Developmental origins of attachment styles. Attachment and Human Development 4:166–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. (2005) The developmental and evolutionary psychology of intergenerational transmission of attachment. In: Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis, ed. Carter, C. S., Ahnert, L., Grossmann, K. E., Hrdy, S. B., Lamb, M. E., Porges, S. W. & Sachser, N., pp. 169–98. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007a) For better and for worse: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Current Directions in Psychological Science 16:300–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L. D., Houts, R. M., Friedman, S. L., DeHart, G., Cauffman, E., Roisman, G. I., Halpern-Felsher, B. L., Susman, E. & The NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2007b) Family rearing antecedents of pubertal timing. Child Development 78:1302–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Steinberg, L. & Draper, P. (1991) Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development 62:647–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benoit, D. & Parker, K. C. H. (1994) Stability and transmission of attachment across three generations. Child Development 65:1444–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bereczkei, T. & Csanaky, A. (2001) Stressful family environment, mortality, and child socialisation: Life-history strategies among adolescents and adults from unfavourable social circumstances. International Journal of Behavioral Development 25:501–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernier, A. & Dozier, M. (2002) Assessing adult attachment: Empirical sophistication and conceptual bases. Attachment and Human Development 4:171–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernroider, G., Holztrattner, M. & Rottner, K. (1996) Sex steroid-opioid interactions associated with the temporal component of avian calling patterns. Hormones and Behavior 30:583–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Betzig, L. (1989) Causes of conjugal dissolution: A cross-cultural study. Current Anthropology 30:654–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birnbaum, G. E. (2007) Beyond the borders of reality: Attachment orientations and sexual fantasies. Personal Relationships 14:321–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjorklund, D. F. (1997) The role of immaturity in human development. Psychological Bulletin 122:153–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjorklund, D. F. & Rosenberg, J. S. (2005) The role of developmental plasticity in the evolution of human cognition: evidence from enculturated, juvenile great apes. In: Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development, ed. Ellis, B. J. & Bjorklund, D. F., pp. 45–75. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Blurton Jones, N. (1989) The cost of children and the adaptive scheduling of births: Towards a sociobiological perspective on demography. In: Sociobiology of sexual and reproductive strategies, ed. Rasa, A., Vogel, C. & Voland, E.. Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Blurton Jones, N. G., Marlowe, F. W., Hawkes, K. & O'Connell, J. F. (2000) Paternal investment and hunter-gatherer divorce rates. In: Adaptation and human behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Cronk, L., Chagnon, N. & Irons, W., pp. 69–90. Aldine De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Bogaert, A. F. & Sadava, S. (2002) Adult attachment and sexual behavior. Personal Relationships 9:191–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogin, B. (1999) Evolutionary perspective on human growth. Annual Review of Anthropology 28:109–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bokhorst, C. L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Fearon, R. M. P., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Fonagy, P. & Schuengel, C. (2003) The importance of shared environment in mother-infant attachment security: A behavioral genetic study. Child Development 74:1769–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Booth-Laforce, C., Oh, W., Hayoung Kim, A., Rubin, K. H., Rose-.Krasnor, L. & Burgess, K. (2006) Attachment, self-worth, and peer-group functioning in middle childhood. Attachment and Human Development 8:309–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borgerhoff Mulder, M. (1989) Menarche, menopause, and reproduction in the Kipsigis of Kenia. Journal of Biosocial Science 21:179–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969/1982) Attachment and loss. Vol. 1. Attachment, 2nd edition.Basic Books. (Original work published 1969).Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1973) Attachment and loss. Vol. 2. Separation. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1980) Attachment and loss. Vol. 3. Loss. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Boyce, W. T. & Ellis, B. J. (2005) Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathoogy 17:271–301.Google ScholarPubMed
Brassard, A., Shaver, P. R. & Lussier, Y. (2007) Attachment, sexual experience, and sexual pleasure in romantic relationships: A dyadic approach. Personal Relationships 14:475–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L. & Shaver, P. R. (1998) Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In: Attachment theory and close relationships, ed. Simpson, J.A. & Rholes, W. S., pp. 46–76. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bretherton, I. & Munholland, K. A. (1999) Internal working models in attachment relationships: A construct revisited. In: Handbook of Attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Bretherton, I., Ridgeway, D. & Cassidy, J. (1990) Assessing internal working models of the attachment relationship: An attachment story completion task. In: Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention, ed. Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M., pp. 273–308. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Brussoni, M. J., Lang, K., Livesley, W. J. & Macbeth, T. M. (2000) Genetic and environmental influences on adult attachment styles. Personal Relationships 7:283–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bukowski, W. M., Sippola, L. A. & Newcomb, A. F. (2000) Variations in patterns of attraction to same- and other-sex peers during early adolescence. Developmental Psychology 36:147–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, D. M. & Schmitt, D. P. (1993) Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review 100:204–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, A. (2000) Putting people before parasites and places. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23:596–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, B. & Udry, J. R. (1995) Stress and age at menarche of mothers and daughters. Journal of Biosocial Science 27:127–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Card, N. A. & Hodges, V. E. (2003) Parent-child relationships and enmity with peers: The role of avoidant and preoccupied attachment. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development 102:23–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D. & Braunwald, K. (1989) Disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships in maltreated infants. Developmental Psychology 25:525–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, C. S. (1998) Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love. Psychoneuroendocrinology 23:779–818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cashdan, E. (1996) Women's mating strategies. Evolutionary Anthropology 5:134–43.3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassidy, J. (1988) Child-mother attachment and the self in six-year-olds. Child Development 59:121–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, J. (1999) The nature of the child's ties. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J. (2003) Continuity and change in the measurement of infant attachment: Comment on Fraley and Spieker (2003). Developmental Psychology 39:409–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, J. & Berlin, L. (1994) The insecure/ambivalent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Child Development 65:971–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R., eds. (1999) Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications. Guilford.Google Scholar
Chasiotis, A., Scheffer, D., Restemeier, R. & Keller, H. (1998) Intergenerational context discontinuity affects the onset of puberty: A comparison of parent–child dyads in West and East Germany. Human Nature 9:321–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chisholm, J. S. (1993) Death, hope, and sex: Life-history theory and the development of reproductive strategies. Current Anthropology 34:1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chisholm, J. S. (1996) The evolutionary ecology of attachment organization. Human Nature 7:1–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chisholm, J. S. (1999) Death, hope and sex: Steps to an evolutionary ecology of mind and morality. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chisholm, J. S., Burbank, V. K., Coall, D. A. & Gemmiti, F. (2005a) Early stress: Perspectives from developmental evolutionary ecology. In: Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development, ed. Ellis, B.J. & Bjorklund, D. F., pp. 76–107. Guilford.Google Scholar
Chisholm, J. S., Quinlivan, J. A., Petersen, R. W. & Coall, D. A. (2005b) Early stress predicts age at menarche and first birth, adult attachment, and expected lifespan. Human Nature 16:233–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, A. & Daly, M. (2005) What is the significance of cross-national variability in sociosexuality? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28:280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1991) The evolution of parental care. Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (2002) Breeding together: Kin selection and mutualism in cooperative vertebrates. Science 296:69–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, N. L. & Read, S. J. (1990) Adult attachment, working models and relationship quality in dating couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58:644–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Comings, D. E., Muhlemann, D., Johnson, J. P. & Mac Murray, J. P. (2002) Parent-daughter transmission of the androgen receptor gene as an explanation of the effect of father absence on age of menarche. Child Development 73:1046–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, M. L., Shaver, P. R. & Collins, N. L. (1998) Attachment styles, emotion regulation, and adjustment in adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74:1380–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corby, B. C. (2006) Attachment and adjustment in preadolescence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Psychology Department, Florida Atlantic University.Google Scholar
Crowell, J. A., Fraley, R. C. & Shaver, P. R. (1999/2008) Measurement of individual differences in adolescent and adult attachment. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford (2nd Edition).Google Scholar
Crowell, J. A., Treboux, D. & Waters, E. (2002) Stability of attachment representations: The transition to marriage. Developmental Psychology 38:467–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, F. M. (2003) Toward assessing attachment on an emotional security continuum: Comment on Fraley and Spieker (2003). Developmental Psychology 39:405–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
David, D. H. & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2005) Differential attachment responses of male and female infants to frightening maternal behavior: Tend or befriend versus fight or flight? Infant Mental Health Journal 26:1–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeKlyen, M., Speltz, M. & Greenberg, M. T. (1999) Fathering and early onset conduct problems: Positive and negative parenting, father–son attachment, and the marital context. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 1:3–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Del Giudice, M. (2008) Sex-biased ratio of avoidant/ambivalent attachment in middle childhood. British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 26:369–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delton, A. W., Robertson, T. E. & Kenrick, D. T. (2006) The mating game isn't over: A reply to Buller's critique of the evolutionary psychology of mating. Evolutionary Psychology 4:262–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draper, P. (1989) African marriage systems: Perspectives from evolutionary ecology. Ethology and Sociobiology 10:145–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draper, P. & Harpending, H. (1982) Father absence and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Anthropological Research 38:255–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draper, P. & Harpending, H. (1988) A sociobiological perspective on the development of human reproductive strategies. In: Sociobiological perspectives on human development, ed. MacDonald, K. B., pp. 340–72. Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ducharme, J., Doyle, A. B. & Markiewicz, D. (2002) Attachment security with mother and father: Associations with adolescents' reports of interpersonal behavior with parents and peers. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 19:203–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. & Schultz, S. (2007) Evolution in the social brain. Science 317:1344–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egan, V. & Angus, S. (2004) Is social dominance a sex-specific strategy for infidelity? Personality and Individual Differences 36:575–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989) Human ethology. Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J. (2004) Timing of pubertal maturation in girls: An integrated life history approach. Psychological Bulletin 130:920–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, B. J. (2005) Determinants of pubertal timing: An evolutionary developmental approach. In: Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development, ed. Ellis, B.J. & Bjorklund, D. F., pp. 164–88. Guilford.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J. & Essex, M. J. (2007) Family environments, adrenarche, and sexual maturation: A longitudinal test of a life history model. Child Development 78:1799–817.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, B. J., Jackson, J. J. & Boyce, W. T. (2006) The stress response system: Universality and adaptive individual differences. Developmental Review 26:175–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellison, P. T. (2001) On fertile ground: A natural history of human reproduction. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Emlen, D. (1997) Alternative reproductive tactics and male dimorphism in the horned beetle Onthophagus acuminatus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 41:335–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erickson, M. F., Sroufe, L. A. & Egeland, B. (1985) The relationship between quality of attachment and behavior problems in preschool in a high-risk sample. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 50:147–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feeney, J. A. (1999) Adult romantic attachment and couple relationships. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R., pp. 355–77. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Feeney, J. A. & Noller, P. (1990) Attachment style as a predictor of adult romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58:281–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Figueredo, A. J., Vásquez, G., Brumbach, B. H. & Schneider, S. M. R. (2004) The heritability of life history strategy: The K-factor, covitality, and personality. Social Biology 51:121–43.Google ScholarPubMed
Figueredo, A. J., Vásquez, G., Brumbach, B., Schneider, S. M. R., Sefcek, J. A., Tal, I. R., Hill, D., Wenner, C. J. & Jacobs, W. J. (2006) Consilience and life history theory: From genes to brain to reproductive strategy. Developmental Review 26:243–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, D., Wille, D. E. & Matheny, A. P. (1998) Preliminary results from a twin study of infant-caregiver attachment. Behavior Genetics 28:1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finnegan, R. A., Hodges, E. & Perry, D. (1996) Preoccupied and avoidant coping during middle childhood. Child Development 67:1318–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flinn, M. V. & Ward, C. V. (2005) Ontogeny and evolution of the social child. In: Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development, ed. Ellis, B. J. & Bjorklund, D. F., pp. 19–44. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Fraley, R. C. (2002) Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic modeling of developmental mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Review 6:123–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraley, R. C. & Spieker, S. J. (2003) Are infant attachment patterns continuously or categorically distributed? A taxometric analysis of Strange Situation behavior. Developmental Psychology 39:387–404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furstenberg, F. F. & Nord, C. W. (1985) Parenting apart: Patterns of childrearing after marital disruption. Journal of Marriage and the Family 47:893–904.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furstenberg, F. F., Peterson, J. L., Nord, C. W. & Zill, N. (1983) The life course of children of divorce: Marital disruption and marital contact. American Sociological Review 48:656–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gangestad, S. W. & Simpson, J. A. (1990) Towards an evolutionary history of female sociosexual variation. Journal of Personality 58:69–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gangestad, S. W. & Simpson, J. A. (2000) The evolution of human mating: Trade-offs and strategic pluralism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23:573–87; discussion 597–644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geary, D. C. (1998) Male, female. The evolution of human sex differences. American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. (2000) Evolution and proximal expression of human paternal investment. Psychological Bulletin 126:55–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geary, D. C. (2002) Sexual selection and human life history. Advances in Child Development and Behavior 30:41–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geary, D. C. (2005a) Evolution of paternal investment. In: The evolutionary psychology handbook, ed. Buss, D. M., pp. 483–505. Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Geary, D. C. & Bjorklund, D. F. (2000) Evolutionary developmental psychology. Child Development 71:57–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geary, D. C. & Flinn, M. V. (2001) Evolution of human parental behavior and the human family. Parenting: Science and Practice 1:5–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gentzler, A. L. & Kerns, K. A. (2004) Associations between insecure attachment and sexual experiences. Personal relationships 11:249–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, C. & West, M. (1999) Developmental vs. social personality models of adult attachment and mental ill health. British Journal of Medical Psychology 72:285–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottesmann, I. I. (1966) Genetic variance in an adaptive personality trait. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 7:199–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Granot, D. & Mayseless, O. (2001) Attachment security and adjustment to school in middle childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development 25:530–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, J., Stanley, C., Smith, V. & Goldwyn, R. (2000) A new method of evaluating attachment representations in school-age children: The Manchester Child Attachment Story Task. Attachment and Human Development 2:48–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, M. T. (1999) Attachment and psychopathology in childhood. In: Handbook of Attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Gross, M. R. (1996) Alternative reproductive strategies and tactics: Diversity within sexes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11:92–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossmann, K. E., Grossmann, K. & Waters, E., eds. (2005) Attachment from infancy to adulthood: The major longitudinal studies. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Grossmann, K. E., Grossmann, K. & Zimmermann, P. (1999) A wider view of attachment and exploration: stability and change during the years of immaturity. In: Handbook of Attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Gurven, M. & Walker, R. (2006) Energetic demand of multiple dependents and the evolution of slow human growth. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 273:835–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Hagen, E. H. & Hammerstein, P. (2005) Evolutionary biology and the strategic view of ontogeny: Genetic strategies provide robustness and flexibility in the life course. Research in Human Development 2:87–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, C. E. (2000) Continuity and discontinuity of attachment from infancy through adolescence. Child Development 71:690–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour, Parts I and II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:1–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harel, J. & Scher, A. (2003) Insufficient responsiveness in ambivalent mother-infant relationships: Contextual and affective aspects. Infant Behavior and Development 26:371–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J. R. (1995) Where is the child's environment? A group socialization theory of development. Psychological Review 102:458–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J. R. (2005) Social behavior and personality development. In: Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development, ed. Ellis, B. J. & Bjorklund, D. F., pp. 245–70. Guilford.Google Scholar
Hazan, C. & Shaver, P. R. (1987) Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52:511–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hazan, C. & Zeifman, D. (1999) Pair bonds as attachments: Evaluating the evidence. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Henderson, A. J. Z., Bartholomew, K. & Dutton, D. G. (1997) He loves me, he loves me not: Attachment and separation resolution of abused women. Journal of Family Violence 12:169–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herdt, G. & McClintock, M. (2000) The magical age of 10. Archives of Sexual Behavior 29:587–606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hesse, E. (1999) The Adult Attachment Interview: Historical and current perspectives. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Hesse, E. & Main, M. (2006) Frightening, threatening, and dissociative parental behavior in low-risk samples: Description, discussion, and interpretations. Development and Psychopathology 18:309–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hewlett, B. S., Lamb, M. E., Leyendecker, B. & Schölmerich, A. (2000) Parental investment strategies among Aka foragers, Ngandu farmers, and Euro American urban-industrialists. In: Adaptation and human behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Cronk, L., Chagnon, N. & Irons, W., pp. 155–78. Aldine De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Hill, K. (1993) Life history theory and evolutionary anthropology. Evolutionary Anthropology 2:78–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, K. & Hurtado, A. M. (1996) Ache life history: The ecology and demography of a foraging people. Aldine De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Hill, K. & Kaplan, K. (1988) Tradeoffs in male and female reproductive strategies among the Ache. In: Human reproductive behavior: A Darwinian perspective, ed. Betzig, L., Borgerhoff Mulder, M. & Turke, P.. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hinde, R. A. (1982) Attachment: Some conceptual and biological issues. In: The place of attachment in human behavior, ed. Parkes, C.M. & Stevenson-Hinde, J., pp. 60–76. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Höglund, J. & Sheldon, B. C. (1998) The cost of reproduction and sexual selection. Oikos 83:478–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houston, A. I. & McNamara, J. M. (1999) Models of adaptive behaviour. An approach based on state. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hrdy, S. B. (1999) Mother nature. Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Hrdy, S. B. (2000) The optimal number of fathers: evolution, demography, and history in the shaping of female mate preferences. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 907:75–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hrdy, S. B. (2005a) Comes the child before the man: Cooperative breeding and the evolution of prolonged post-weaning dependence. In: Hunter gatherer childhoods: Evolutionary, developmental and cultural perspectives, ed. Hewlett, B. & Lamb, M.. Aldine/Transaction.Google Scholar
Hrdy, S. B. (2005b) Evolutionary context of human development: The cooperative breeding model. In: Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis, ed. Carter, C. S., Ahnert, L., Grossmann, K. E., Hrdy, S. B., Lamb, M. E., Porges, S.W. & Sachser, N., pp. 9–32. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ibáñez, L., Dimartino-Nardi, J., Potau, N. & Saenger, P. (2000) Premature adrenarche – normal variant or forerunner of adult disease. Endocrine Reviews 21:671–96.Google ScholarPubMed
Impett, E. A. & Peplau, L. A. (2002) Why some women consent to unwanted sex with a dating partner: Insights from attachment theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly 26:360–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Insel, T. R. (2000) Toward a neurobiology of attachment. Review of General Psychology 4:176–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Insel, T. R. & Young, L. J. (2001) The neurobiology of attachment. Nature Neuroscience 2:129–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, J. J. & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (2007) The structure and measurement of human mating strategies: Towards a multidimensional model of sociosexuality. Evolution and Human Behavior 28:382–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jang, S. A., Smith, S. W. & Levine, T. R. (2002) To stay or to leave? The role of attachment styles in communication patterns and potential termination of romantic relationships following discovery of deception. Communication Monographs 69:236–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jezova, D., Jurankova, E., Mosnarova, A., Kriska, M. & Skultetyova, I. (1996) Neuroendocrine response during stress with relation to gender differences. Acta Neurobiologae Experimentalis 56:779–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., Rodgers, B., Jacomb, P. A. & Easteal, S. (2004) Association of adverse childhood experiences, age of menarche, and adult reproductive behavior: Does the androgen receptor gene play a role? American Journal of Medical Genetics, B 125:105–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juvonen, J., Graham, S. & Schuster, M. A. (2003) Bullying among young adolescents: The strong, the weak, and the troubled. Pediatrics 112:1231–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanazawa, S. (2001) Why father absence might precipitate early menarche: The role of polygyny. Evolution and Human Behavior 22:329–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, H., Hill, K., Lancaster, J. & Hurtado, A. M. (2000) A theory of human life history evolution: Diet, intelligence, and longevity. Evolutionary Anthropology 9:156–85.3.0.CO;2-7>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, H. & Robson, A.J. (2002) The emergence of humans: The coevolution of intelligence and longevity with intergenerational transfers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99:10221–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, H. S. & Gangestad, S. W. (2005) Life history theory and evolutionary psychology. In: Handbook of evolutionary psychology, ed. Buss, D. M., pp. 68–95. Wiley.Google Scholar
Karavasilis, L., Doyle, A. B. & Markiewicz, D. (2003) Associations between parenting style and attachment to mother in middle childhood and adolescence. International Journal of Behavioral Development 27:153–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerns, K. A., Abraham, M. M., Schlegelmilch, A. & Morgan, T. A. (2007) Mother-child attachment in later middle childhood: Assessment approaches and associations with mood and emotion regulation. Attachment and Human Development 9:33–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerns, K. A., Schlegelmilch, A., Morgan, T. A. & Abraham, M. M. (2005) Assessing attachment in middle childhood. In: Attachment in middle childhood, ed. Kerns, L. A. & Richardson, R. A., pp. 46–70. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kerns, K. A., Tomich, P. L., Aspelmeier, J. E. & Contreras, J. M. (2000) Attachment-based assessments of parent-child relationships in middle childhood. Developmental Psychology 36:614–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keverne, E. B., Nevison, C. M. & Martel, F. L. (1999) Early learning and the social bond. In: The integrative neurobiology of affiliation, ed. Carter, C. S. & Lederhendler, I. I., pp. 263–74. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Kirk, K. M., Blomberg, S. P., Duffy, D. L., Heath, A. C., Owens, I. P. F. & Martin, N. G. (2001) Natural selection and quantitative genetics of life-history traits in western women: A twin study. Evolution 55:423–35.Google ScholarPubMed
Kirkpatrick, L. A. (1998) Evolution, pair bonding, and reproductive strategies: A reconceptualization of adult attachment. In: Attachment theory and close relationships, ed. Simpson, J. A. & Rholes, W. S., pp. 353–93. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, L. A. & Davis, K. E. (1994) Attachment style, gender and relationship stability: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66:502–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kokko, H. (1997) Evolutionary stable strategies of age-dependent sexual advertisement. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 41:99–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korte, S. M., Koolhaas, J. M., Wingfield, J. C. & McEwen, B. S. (2005) The Darwinian concept of stress: Benefits of allostasis and costs of allostatic load and the trade-offs in health and disease. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 29:3–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kramer, K. L. (2005) Children's help and the pace of reproduction: Cooperative breeding in humans. Evolutionary Anthropology 14:224–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labrie, F., Luu-The, V., Belanger, A., Lin, S. G., Simard, J., Pelletier, G. & Labrie, C. (2005) Is dehydroepiandrosterone a hormone? Journal of Endocrinology 187:169–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamb, M. E., Frodi, A. M., Hwang, C. P. & Frodi, M. (1982) Varying degrees of paternal involvement in infant care: Attitudinal and behavioral correlates. In: Nontraditional families: Parenting and child development, ed. Lamb, M. E., pp. 117–37. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lampert, A. & Friedman, A. (1992) Sex differences in vulnerability and maladjustment as a function of parental investment: An evolutionary approach. Social Biology 39:65–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Lancaster, J. B. (1989) Evolutionary and cross-cultural perspectives on single-parenthood. In: Sociobiology and the social sciences, ed. Bell, R. & Bell, N.. Texas Tech University Press.Google Scholar
Landolt, M. A., Lalumiere, M. L. & Quinsey, V. L. (1995) Sex differences in intra-sex variation in human mating tactics: An evolutionary approach. Ethology and Sociobiology 16:3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leckman, J. F., Carter, C. S., Hennessy, M. B., Hrdy, S. B., Keverne, E. B., Klann-Delius, G., Schradin, C., Todt, D. & von Holst, D. (2005) Biobehavioral processes in attachment and bonding. In: Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis, ed. Carter, C.S., Ahnert, L., Grossmann, K. E., Hrdy, S. B., Lamb, M. E., Porges, S. W. & Sachser, N., pp. 301–48. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, M., Feiring, C. & Rosenthal, S. (2000) Attachment over time. Child Development 71:707–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, M., Doyle, A. & Markiewicz, D. (1999) Developmental patterns in security of attachment to mother and father in late childhood and early adolescence: Associations with peer relations. Child Development 70:202–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, Y. (2007) An examination of three models of the relationships between parental attachment and adolescents' social functioning and depressive symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 37:941–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Low, B. (2000) Sex, wealth, and fertility: Old rules, new environments. In: Adaptation and human behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Cronk, L., Chagnon, N. & Irons, W., pp. 323–44. Aldine De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Lynch, M. (1987) Evolution of intrafamilial interactions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 84:8507–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K., Bronfman, E. & Parsons, E. (1999) Frightened, frightening, and atypical maternal behavior and disorganized infant attachment strategies. In: Atypical patterns of infant attachment, ed. Vondra, J. & Barnett, D.. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, No. 64, pp. 67–96.Google ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K. & Jacobvitz, D. (1999) Attachment disorganization: Unresolved loss, relational violence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R., pp. 520–54. Guilford.Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E. (1991) Different reproductive strategies in males and females. Child Development 62:676–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mace, R. (2000a) An adaptive model of human reproductive rate where wealth is inherited: Why people have small families. In: Adaptation and human behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Cronk, L., Chagnon, N. & Irons, W., pp. 283–322. Aldine De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Mace, R. (2000b) Evolutionary ecology of human life history. Animal Behaviour 59:1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mace, R. & Sear, R. (2005) Are humans cooperative breeders? In: Grandmotherhood. The evolutionary significance of the second half of female life, ed. Voland, E., Chasiotis, A. & Schiefenhoevel, W., pp. 143–59. Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Main, M. (1981) Avoidance in the service of attachment: a working paper. In: Behavioral development: The Bielefeld Interdisciplinary Project, ed. Immelmann, K., Barlow, G., Main, M. & Petrinovich, L., pp. 651–93. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Main, M. (1990) Cross-cultural strategies of attachment and attachment organization: Recent studies, changing methodologies, and the concept of conditional strategies. Human Development 33:48–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Main, M. & Goldwyn, R. (1998) Adult attachment scoring and classification system. Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Berkeley.Google Scholar
Main, M. & Hesse, E. (1990) Parent's unresolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening parental behavior the linking mechanism? In: Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention, ed. Greenberg, M., Cicchetti, D. & Cummings, E. M.. The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Marlowe, F. (2000) Paternal investment and the human mating system. Behavioural Processes 51:45–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marlowe, F. (2003) The mating system of foragers in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample. Cross-Cultural Research 37:282–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarthy, M. M. (1995) Estrogen modulation of oxytocin and its relation to behavior. In: Oxytocin: Cellular and molecular approaches in medicine and research, ed. Ivell, R. & Russell, J., pp. 235–42. Plenum Press.Google Scholar
McCarthy, M. M., McDonald, C. H., Brooks, P. J. & Goldman, D. (1996) An anxiolytic action of oxytocin is enhanced by estrogen in the mouse. Physiology and Behavior 60:1209–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClintock, M. & Herdt, G. (1996) Rethinking puberty: The development of sexual attraction. Current Directions in Psychological Science 5:178–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNamara, J. M. & Houston, A. I. (1996) State-dependent life histories. Nature 380:215–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, E. M. (1994) Paternal provisioning versus mate seeking in human populations. Personality and Individual Differences 17: 227–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mock, D. & Parker, G. (1997) The evolution of sibling rivalry. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A. & Belsky, J. (1992) Childhood experience and the onset of menarche: A test of a sociobiological model. Child Development 63:47–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morison, P. & Masten, A. S. (1991) Peer reputation in middle childhood as a predictor of adaptation in adolescence: A seven-year follow-up. Child Development 62:991–1007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moss, E., Rousseau, D., Parent, S., St-Laurent, D. & Saintonge, J. (1998) Correlates of attachment at school age: Maternal reported stress, mother-child interaction, and behavior problems. Child Development 69:1390–1405.Google ScholarPubMed
Nettle, D. (2006) The evolution of personality variation in humans and other animals. American Psychologist 61:622–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nettle, D. (2007) Individual differences. In: Oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology, ed. Dunbar, R. & Barrett, L., pp. 479–90. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
O'Connor, T. G. & Croft, C. M. (2001) A twin study of attachment in preschool children. Child Development 72:1501–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Connor, T. G., Croft, C. M. & Steele, H. (2000) The contributions of behavioural genetic studies to attachment theory. Attachment and Human Development 2:107–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmert, M. R., Hayden, D. L., Mansfield, J., Crigler, J. F., Crowley, W. F., Chandler, D. W. & Boepple, P. A. (2001) The longitudinal study of adrenal maturation during gonadal suppression: Evidence that adrenarche is a gradual process. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 86:4536–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Panksepp, J. (1998) Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, G. A., Royle, N. J. & Hartley, I. R. (2002) Intrafamilial conflict and parental investment: A synthesis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 357:295–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pedersen, C. A., Ahnert, L., Anzenberger, G., Belsky, J., Draper, P., Fleming, A. S., Grossmann, K., Sachser, N., Sommer, S., Tietze, D. P. & Young, L. J. (2005) Beyond infant attachment: The origins of bonding in later life. In: Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis, ed. Carter, C.S., Ahnert, L., Grossmann, K. E., Hrdy, S. B., Lamb, M. E., Porges, S.W. & Sachser, N., pp. 385–428. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pellegrini, A. D. (1995) A longitudinal study of boys' rough-and-tumble play and dominance during early adolescence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 16:77–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pellegrini, A. D. & Bartini, M. (2001) Dominance in early adolescent boys: Affiliative and aggressive dimensions and possible functions. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 47:142–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pennington, R. & Harpending, H. (1988) Fitness and fertility among Kalahari !Kung. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 77:303–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Picardi, A., Vermigli, P., Toni, A., D'Amico, R., Bitetti, D. & Pasquini, P. (2002) Further evidence of the validity of the Italian version of the questionnaire “Experiences in Close Relationships” (ECR), a self-report instrument to assess adult attachment. Italian Journal of Psychopathology 8. (Online publication).Google Scholar
Pinker, S. (1997) How the mind works. Norton.Google Scholar
Promislow, D. & Harvey, P. (1990) Living fast and dying young: A comparative analysis of life-history variation among mammals. Journal of the Zoological Society of London 220:417–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Promislow, D. & Harvey, P. (1991) Mortality rates and the evolution of mammal life histories. Acta Oecologica 12:119–37.Google Scholar
Quinlan, R. J. (2007) Human parental effort and environmental risk. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 274:121–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Quinlan, R. J. & Quinlan, M. B. (2007a) Evolutionary ecology of human pair-bonds. Cross-cultural tests of alternative hypotheses. Cross-Cultural Research 41:149–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinlan, R. J. & Quinlan, M. B. (2007b) Parenting and cultures of risk: A comparative analysis of infidelity, aggression, and witchcraft. American Anthropologist 109:164–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renken, B., Egeland, B., Marvinney, D., Manglesdorf, S. & Sroufe, L. A. (1989) Early childhood antecedents of aggression and passive-withdrawal in early elementary school. Journal of Personality 57:257–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodkin, P. C., Farmer, T. W., Ruth, P. & Acker, R. V. (2006) They're cool: Social status and peer group support for aggressive boys and girls. Social Development 15:175–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roff, D. A. (2002) Life history evolution. Sinauer.Google Scholar
Roisman, G. I., Holland, A., Fortuna, K., Fraley, C., Clausell, E. & Clarke, A. (2007) The Adult Attachment Interview and self-reports of attachment style: An empirical reapprochement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92:678–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, D. C. (2000a) Environmental and genetic influences on pubertal development: evolutionary life history traits? In: Genetic influences on human fertility and sexuality: recent empirical and theoretical findings, ed. Rodgers, J. L., Rowe, D. C & Miller, W. B., pp. 147–68. Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, D. C., Vazsonyi, A. T. & Figueredo, A. J. (1997) Mating-effort in adolescence: A conditional or alternative strategy. Personality and Individual Differences 23:105–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sadalla, E. I., Kenrick, D. T. & Vershure, B. (1987) Dominance and heterosexual attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52:730–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sagi, A., Lamb, M. E., Lewkowicz, K. S., Shoham, R., Dvir, R. & Estes, D. (1985) Security of infant-mother, -father, and -metapelet attachment among kibbutz-reared Israeli children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 50:257–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sagi, A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Aviezer, O., Donnell, F. & Mayseless, O. (1994) Sleeping out of home in a kibbutz communal arrangement: It makes a difference for infant-mother attachment. Child Development 65:992–1004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schachner, D. A. & Shaver, P. R. (2002) Attachment style and human mate poaching. New Review of Social Psychology 1:122–29.Google Scholar
Scharfe, E. & Bartholomew, K. (1994) Reliability and stability of adult attachment patterns. Personal Relationships 1:23–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, D. P. (2005a) Is short-term mating the maladaptive result of insecure attachment? A test of competing evolutionary perspectives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31:747–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmitt, D. P., Alcalay, L., Allensworth, M., Allik, J., Ault, L., Austers, I., Bennett, K. L., Bianchi, G., Boholst, F., Borg Cunen, M. A., Braeckman, J., Brainerd, E. G. Jr., Caral, L. G. A., Caron, G., Casullo, M. M., Cunningham, M., Daibo, I., De Backer, C., De Souza, E., Diaz-Loving, R., Diniz, G., Durkin, K., Echegaray, M., Eremsoy, E., Euler, H. A., Falzon, R., Fisher, M. L., Fowler, R., Fry, D. P., Fry, S., Ghayur, M. A., Giri, V. N., Golden, D. L., Grammer, K., Grimaldi, L., Halberstadt, J., Haque, S., Hefer, E., Herrera, D., Hertel, J., Hitchell, A., Hoffman, H., Hradilekova, Z., Hudek-Kene-evi, J., Huffcutt, A., Jaafar, J., Jankauskaite, M., Kabangu-Stahel, H., Kardum, I., Khoury, B., Kwon, H., Laidra, K., Laireiter, A., Lakerveld, D., Lampart, A., Lauri, M., Lavallée, M., Lee, S., Leung, L.C., Locke, K. D., Locke, V., Luksik, I., Magaisa, I., Marcinkeviciene, J., Mata, A., Mata, R., McCarthy, B., Mills, M. E., Mkhize, N. J., Moreira, J., Moreira, S., Moya, M., Munyea, M., Noller, P., Olimat, H., Opre, A., Panayiotou, A., Petrovic, N., Poels, K., Popper, M., Poulimenou, M., P'yatokha, V., Raymond, M., Reips, U., Reneau, S. E., Rivera-Aragon, S., Rowatt, W. C., Ruch, W., Rus, V. S., Safir, M. P., Salas, S., Sambataro, F., Sandnabba, K. N., Schleeter, R., Schulmeyer, M. K., Schütz, A., Scrimali, T., Shackelford, T. K., Sharan, M. B., Shaver, P. R., Sichona, F., Simonetti, F., Sineshaw, T., Sookdew, R., Speelman, T., Sümer, H. C., Sümer, N., Supekova, M., Szlendak, T., Taylor, R., Timmermans, B., Tooke, W., Tsaousis, I., Tungaraza, F. S. K., Turner, A., Vandermassen, G., Vanhoomissen, T., Van Overwalle, F., Van Wesenbeek, I., Vasey, P. L., Verissimo, J., Voracek, M., Wan, W. W. N., Wang, T., Weiss, P., Wijaya, A., Woertment, L., Youn, G. & Zupanèiè, A. (2003a) Are men universally more dismissing than women? Gender differences in romantic attachment across 62 cultural regions. Personal Relationships 10:307–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, D. P., Alcalay, L., Allik, J., Ault, L., Austers, I., Bennett, K. L., Bianchi, G., Boholst, F., Borg Cunen, M. A., Braeckman, J., Brainerd, E. G. Jr., Caral, L. G. A., Caron, G., Casullo, M. M., Cunningham, M., Daibo, I., De Backer, C., De Souza, E., Diaz-Loving, R., Diniz, G., Durkin, K., Echegaray, M., Eremsoy, E., Euler, H. A., Falzon, R., Fisher, M. L., Foley, D., Fry, D. P., Fry, S., Ghayur, M. A., Golden, D. L., Grammer, K., Grimaldi, L., Halberstadt, J., Herrera, D., Hertel, J., Hoffman, H., Hradilekova, Z., Hudek-Kene-evi, J., Jaafar, J., Jankauskaite, M., Kabangu-Stahel, H., Kardum, I., Khoury, B., Kwon, H., Laidra, K., Laireiter, A., Lakerveld, D., Lampart, A., Lauri, M., Lavallée, M., Lee, S., Leung, L.C., Locke, K. D., Locke, V., Luksik, I., Magaisa, I., Marcinkeviciene, J., Mata, A., Mata, R., McCarthy, B., Mills, M. E., Moreira, J., Moreira, S., Moya, M., Munyea, M., Noller, P., Opre, A., Panayiotou, A., Petrovic, N., Poels, K., Popper, M., Poulimenou, M., P'yatokha, V., Raymond, M., Reips, U., Reneau, S. E., Rivera-Aragon, S., Rowatt, W. C., Ruch, W., Rus, V. S., Safir, M. P., Salas, S., Sambataro, F., Sandnabba, K. N., Schulmeyer, M. K., Schütz, A., Scrimali, T., Shackelford, T. K., Shaver, P. R., Sichona, F., Simonetti, F., Sineshaw, T., Sookdew, R., Speelman, T., Spyrou, S., Sümer, H.C., Sümer, N., Supekova, M., Szlendak, T., Taylor, R., Timmermans, B., Tooke, W., Tsaousis, I., Tungaraza, F. S. K., Vandermassen, G., Vanhoomissen, T., Van Overwalle, F., Vanwesenbeek, I., Vasey, P. L., Verissimo, J., Voracek, M., Wan, W. W. N., Wang, T., Weiss, P., Wijaya, A., Woertment, L., Youn, G., & Zupanèiè, A. (2003b) Universal sex differences in the desire for sexual variety: Tests from 52 nations, 6 continents, and 13 islands. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85:85–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmitt, D. P., Alcalay, L., Allensworth, M., Allik, J., Ault, L., Austers, I., et al. Bennett, K. L., Bianchi, G., Boholst, F., Borg Cunen, M. A., Braeckman, J., Brainerd, E. G. Jr., Caral, L., Caron, G., , G. A., Casullo, M. M., Cunningham, M., Daibo, I., De Backer, C., De Souza, E., Diaz-Loving, R., Diniz, G., Durkin, K., Echegaray, M., Eremsoy, E., Euler, H. A., Falzon, R., Fisher, M. L., Foley, D., Fowler, R., Fry, D. P., Fry, S., Ghayur, M. A., Giri, V. N., Golden, D. L., Grammer, K., Grimaldi, L., Halbertandt, J., Haque, S., Herrera, D., Hertel, J., Hitchell, A., Hoffmann, H., Hooper, D., Hradilekova, Z., Hudek-Kene-Evi, J., Huffcutt, A., Jaafar, J., Jankauskaite, M., Kabangu-Stahel, H., Kardum, I., Khoury, B., Kwon, H., Laidra, K., Laireiter, A., Lakerveld, D., Lampert, A., Lauri, M., Lavallée, M., Lee, S., Leung, L. C., Locke, K. D., Locke, V., Luksik, I., Magaisa, I., Marcinkeviciene, D., Mata, A., Mata, R., McCarthy, B., Mills, M. E., Mkhize, N. J:, Moreira, J., Moreira, S., Moya, M., Munyae, M., Noller, P., Olimat, H., Opre, A., Panayiotou, A., Petrovic, N., Poels, K., Popper, M., Poulimenou, ., P'Yatokha, V., Raymond, M., Reips, U., Reneau, S., Rivera-Aragon, S., Rowatt, W. C., Ruch, W., Rus, V. S., Safir, M. P., Salas, S., Sambataro, F., Sandnabba, K. N., Schleeter, R., Schulmeyer, M. K., Schütz, A., Scrimali, T., Shackelford, T. K., Sharan, M. B., Shaver, P. R., Sichona, F., Simonetti, F., Sineshaw, T., Sookdew, R., Speelman, T., Spyrou, S., Sümer, H. C., Sümer, N., Supekova, M., Szlendak, T., Taylor, R., Timmermans, B., Tooke, W., Tsaousis, I., Tungaraza, F. S. K., Turner, A., Vandermassen, G., Vanhoomissen, T., van Overwalle, F., Vanwesenbeeck, I., vasey, P. L., Verissimo, J., Voracek, M., Wan, W. W. N., Wang, T., Weiss, P., Wijaya, A., Woertman, L., Youn, G., Zupanèiè, A. (2004) Patterns and universals of adult romantic attachment across 62 cultural regions. Are models of self and others pancultural constructs? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35:367–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serbin, L. A., Powlishta, K. K. & Gulko, J. (1993) The development of sex typing in middle childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 64: 1–74.Google Scholar
Shaver, P. R., Belsky, J. & Brennan, K. A. (2000) Comparing measures of adult attachment: An examination of interview and self-report methods. Personal Relationships 7:25–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaver, P. R. & Mikulincer, M. (2002) Attachment-related psychodynamics. Attachment and Human Development 4:133–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sibley, C. G. & Overall, N. C. (2008) Modeling the hierarchical structure of attachment representations: A test of domain differentiation. Personality and Individual Differences 44:238–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, N. G. & Lu, S. (2006) Androgens and aggression. In: Biology of aggression, ed. Nelson, R. J., pp. 211–30. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Simpson, J. A. (1994) Pair bonding as an organizational model for integrating research on close relationships. Psychological Inquiry 5:58–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpson, J. A. (1999) Attachment theory in modern evolutionary perspective. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Simpson, J. A. & Rholes, W. S. (2002) Fearful-avoidance, disorganization, and multiple working models: Some directions for future theory and research. Attachment and Human Development 4:223–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solomon, J. & George, C. (1999) The measurement of attachment security in infancy and childhood. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Spear, L. P. (2000) The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Review 24:417–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sroufe, L. A. (2003) Attachment categories as reflections of multiple dimensions. Comment on Fraley and Spieker (2003). Developmental Psychology 39:413–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sroufe, L. A., Bennett, C., Englund, M., Urban, J. & Shulman, S. (1993) The significance of gender boundaries in preadolescence: Contemporary correlates and antecedents of boundary violation and maintenance. Child Development 64:455–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strous, R. D., Spivak, B., Yoran-Hegesh, R., Maayan, R., Averbuch, E., Kotler, M., Mester, R. & Weizman, A. (2001) Analysis of neurosteroid levels in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The International Journal of Psychopharmacology 4:259–64.Google ScholarPubMed
Suess, G. J., Grossmann, K. E. & Sroufe, L. A. (1992) Effects of infant attachment to mother and father on quality of adaptation in preschool: From dyadic to individual organisation of self. International Journal of Behavioral Development 15:43–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suomi, S. J. (1999) Attachment in rhesus monkeys. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Svensson, E. & Sheldon, B. C. (1998) The social context of life history evolution. Oikos 83:466–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, S. E. (2006) Tend and befriend: Biobehavioral bases of affiliation under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science 15:273–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, S. E., Klein, L. C., Lewis, B. P., Gruenenwald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. & Updegraff, J. A. (2000) Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review 107:411–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (1999) Early attachment and later development. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Tomaszycki, M. L., Davis, J. E., Gouzoules, H. & Wallen, K. (2001) Sex differences in infant rhesus macaque separation–rejection vocalizations and effects of prenatal androgens. Hormones and Behavior 39:267–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torgersen, A. M., Grova, B. K. & Sommersted, R. (2007) A pilot study of attachment patterns in adult twins. Attachment and Human Development 9:127–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, I., Szollosi, A., Danis, I., Green, J. & Gervai, J. (2006) Changes of attachment to the mother from infancy to childhood: Girls are less at risk? Infant Mental Health Journal 27:343.Google Scholar
Treboux, D., Crowell, J. A. & Waters, E. (2004) When “new” meets “old”: Configurations of adult attachment representations and their implications for marital functioning. Developmental Psychology 40:295–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treloar, S. A. & Martin, N. G. (1990) Age at menarche as a fitness trait: Nonadditive genetic variance detected in a large twin sample. American Journal of Human Genetics 47:137–48.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man 1871–1971, ed. Campbell, B., pp. 136–79. Aldine.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1974) Parent-offspring conflict. American Zoologist 14:249–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1985) Social evolution. Benjamin/Cummings.Google Scholar
Troy, M. & Sroufe, L. A. (1987) Victimization among preschoolers: Role of attachment relationship history. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 26:166–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, P. J. (1991) Relations between attachment, gender, and behavior with peers in preschool. Child Development 62:1475–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Goozen, S. H. M., Matthys, W., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Thijssen, J. H. H. & van Engeland, H. (1998) Adrenal androgens and aggression in conduct disorder prepubertal boys and normal controls. Biological Psychiatry 43:156–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Goozen, S. H. M., van den Ban, E., Matthys, W., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Thijssen, J. H.H. & van Engeland, H. (2000) Increased adrenal androgen functioning in children with oppositional defiant disorder: A comparison with psychiatric and normal controls. Journal of the American Academy of Children and Adolescent Psychiatry 39:1446–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2000) The similarity of siblings' attachments to their mother. Child Development 71:1086–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van IJzendoorn, M. H. & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1996) Attachment representations in mothers, fathers, adolescents, and clinical groups: A meta-analytic search for normative data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64:8–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van IJzendoorn, M. H. & Sagi, A. (1999) Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: Universal and contextual dimensions. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R., pp. 713–34. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Verschueren, K. & Marcoen, A. (1999) Representation of self and socioemotional competence in kindergartners: Differential and combined effects of attachment to mother and to father. Child Development 70:183–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verschueren, K. & Marcoen, A. (2002) Perceptions of self and relationship with parents in aggressive and nonaggressive rejected children. Journal of School Psychology 40:501–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viau, V. (2002) Functional cross-talk between the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal and -adrenal axes. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 14:506–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voland, E. (1998) Evolutionary ecology of human reproduction. Annual Review of Anthropology 27:347–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vondra, J. I., Hommerding, K. D. & Shaw, D. S. (1999) Stability and change in infant attachment in a low-income sample. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 64:119–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallen, K. (2005) Hormonal influences on sexually differentiated behavior in nonhuman primates. Frontiers of Neuroendocrinology 26:7–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wasser, S. K. & Barash, D. P. (1983) Reproductive suppression among female mammals: Implications for biomedicine and sexual selection theory. The Quarterly Review of Biology 58:513–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, E. & Beauchaine, T. P. (2003) Are there really patterns of attachment? Comment on Fraley and Spieker (2003). Developmental Psychology 39:417–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J. & Albersheim, L. (2000) Attachment security in infancy and early adulthood: a twenty-year longitudinal study. Child Development 71:684–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, E., Weinfield, N. S. & Hamilton, C. E. (2000) The stability of attachment security from infancy to adolescence to early adulthood: General discussion. Child Development 71:703–06.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinfield, N. S., Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B. & Carlson, E. A. (1999) The nature of individual differences in infant-caregiver attachment. In: Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, ed. Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R.. Guilford.Google Scholar
Weinfield, N. S., Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B. & Carlson, E. A. (2000) Attachment from infancy and adulthood in a high-risk sample: Continuity, discontinuity, and their correlates. Child Development 71:695–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weisfeld, G. E. (1999) Evolutionary principles of human adolescence. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Weisfeld, G. E., Bloch, S. A. & Ivers, J. W. (1983) A factor analytic study of peer-perceived dominance in adolescent boys. Adolescence 18:229–43.Google Scholar
Weisfeld, G. E., Muczenski, , Weisfeld, & Omark, (1987) Stability of boys' social success among peers over an eleven-year period. In: Interpersonal relations: Family, peers, friends, ed. Meacham, J. A.. Karger.Google Scholar
West-Eberhard, M. J. (2003) Developmental plasticity and evolution. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkins, A. S. (2002) The evolution of developmental pathways. Sinauer.Google Scholar
Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (1985) Competitiveness, risk-taking, and violence: The young male syndrome. Ethology and Sociobiology 6:59–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winking, J., Kaplan, H., Gurven, M. & Rucas, S. (2007) Why do men marry and why do they stray? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. B. 274:1643–49.Google ScholarPubMed