Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T10:15:54.051Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The placebo effect as a conditioned response: Failures of the “litmus test”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 May 2011

Irving Kirsch
Irving Kirsch
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020, Electronic mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Continuing Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 14 , Issue 1 , March 1991 , pp. 200 - 201
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1991

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Baker, T. B. & Tiffany, S. T. (1985) Morphine tolerance as habituation. Psychological Review 92:78–108. [rJST, AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bardo, M. T. & Hughes, R. A. (1979) Exposure to a nonfunctional hot plate as a factor in the assessment of morphine-induced analgesia and analgesic tolerance in rats. Pharmacology Biochemistry £ Behavior 10:481–85. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boissel, J. P., Philippon, A. M., Gauthier, E., Schbath, J., Destors, J. M. & the B. I. S. Research Group. (1986) Time course of long-term placebo therapy effects in angina pectoris. European Heart Journal 7:1030–36. [IK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolles, R. C. (1972) Reinforcement, expectancy, and learning. Psychological Review, 79:394–409. [IK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coryell, W. & Noyes, R. (1988) Placebo response in panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 145:1138–40. [IK, rJST]Google ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, C. L. & Schwartz, K. S. (1989) Pavlovian-conditioned changes in body temperature induced by alcohol and morphine. Drug Development Research 16:295–303. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dafters, R. & Bach, L. (1985) Absence of environment-specificity in morphine tolerance acquired in non-distinctive environments: Habituation or overshadowing? Psychopharmacology 87:101–106. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dafters, R., Odber, J. & Miller, J. (1988) Associative and non-associative tolerance to morphine: Support for a dual-process habituation model. Life Sciences 42:1897–1906. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dafters, R. & Odber, J. (in press) Effects of dose, inter-dose interval, and drug-signal parameters on morphine analgesic tolerance: Implications for current theories of tolerance. Behavioral Neuroscience. [AJG]Google Scholar
Erwin, E. (1983) Psychotherapy, placebos, and wait-list controls. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:289–90. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, F. J. (1974) The placebo response in pain reduction. Advances in Neurology 4:289–96.Google Scholar
Goudie, A. J. & Demellweek, C. (1986) Conditioning factors in drug tolerance. In: Behavioural analysis of drug dependence, ed. Goldberg, S. R. & Stolerman, I. P.. Academic Press. [AJG, rJST]Google Scholar
Goudie, A. J. & Emmett-Oglesby, M. W. (1989) Tolerance and sensitization: Overview. In: Psychoactive drugs: Tolerance and sensitization, ed Goudie, A. J. & Emmett-Oglesby, M. W.. Humana. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, J. G. & Bond, C. F. (1986) Social and behavioral consequences of alcohol consumption and expectancy: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 99:347–60. [IK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphrey, G. (1930) Extinction and negative adaptation. Psychological Review 37:361–63. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, R. F., Cooney, N. L., Baker, L. H., Gillespie, R. A., Meyer, R. E. & Pomerleau, O. F. (1985) Reactivity to alcohol-related cues: Physiological and subjective responses to alcoholics and nonproblem drinkers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 46:267–72. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirsch, I. (1985) Response expectancy as a determinant of experience and behavior. American Psijchologist 40:1189–1202. [IK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirsch, I. (1990) Changing expectations: A key to effective psychotherapy. Brooks/Cole. [IK]Google Scholar
Kirsch, I. & Weixel, L. (1988) Double-blind versus deceptive administration of a placebo. Behavioral Neuroscience 102:319–23. [IK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krank, M. D. (1987) Conditioned hyperalgesia depends on the pain sensitivity measure. Behavioral Neuroscience 101:854–57. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Le, A. D., Khanna, J. M. & Kalant, H. (1987) Role of Pavlovian conditioning in the development of tolerance and cross-tolerance to the hypothermic effect of ethanol and hydralazine. Psychopharmacology 92:210–14. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacAndrew, C. & Edgerton, R. B. (1969) Drunken comportment: A social explanation, Aldine. [IK]Google Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (1987) Neurobiology, psychology and habituation. Behaviour Research and Therapy 25:81–97. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacRae, J. R. & Siegel, S. (1987) Extinction of tolerance to the analgesic effect of morphine: Intracerebroventricular administration and effects of stress. Behavioral Neuroscience 101:790–96. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marlatt, G. A. & Rohsenow, D. J. (1980) Cognitive processes in alcohol use: Expectancy and the balanced placebo design. In: Advances in substance abuse: Behavioral and biological research, ed. Mello, N. K.. Jai Press. [rJST]Google Scholar
Masserman, J. H. (1950) Experimental neuroses. Scientific American 182:38–43. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maude-Griffin, P. M. & Tiffany, S. T. (1989) Associative morphine tolerance in the rat: Examinations of compensatory responding and cross-tolerance with stress-induced analgesia. Behavioral and Neural Biology 51:11–13. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mavissakalian, M. (1988) The placebo effect in agoraphobia - II. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 176:446–48. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCaul, M. E., Turkkan, J. S. & Stitzer, M. L. (1989) Conditioned opponent responses: Effects of placebo challenge in alcoholic subjects. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 13:631–35. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCaul, M. E., Turkkan, J. S. & Stitzer, M. L. (1989) Psychophysiological effects of alcohol-related stimuli. I: The role of stimulus intensity. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 13:386–91. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meath, J. A., Feldberg, T. M., Rosenthal, D. & Frank, J. D. (1956) Comparison of reserpine and placebo in treatment of psychiatric outpatients. American Medical Association Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 76:207–14. [IK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendelson, J. H., McGuire, M. & Mello, N. K. (1984) A new device for administering placebo alcohol. Alcohol 1:417–19. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Michaelis, R. C., Holohean, A. M., Criado, J. R., Harland, R. D., Hunter, G. A. & Holloway, F. A. (1988) The chlordiazepoxide/pentylenetetrazol discrimination: Characterization of drug interactions and homeostatic responses to drug challenges. Psychopharmacology 96:15–20. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moscucci, M., Byrne, L., Weintraub, M. & Cox, C. (1987) Blinding, unblinding, and the placebo effect: A analysis of patients' guesses of treatment assignment in a double-blind clinical trial. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 41:259–65. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mowrer, O. H. (1938) Apparatus for the study and treatment of enuresis. American Journal of Psychology 51:163–66. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newlin, D. B. (1986) Conditioned compensatory response to alcohol placebo in humans. Psychopharmacology 88:247–51. [AJG, rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paletta, M. S. & Wagner, A. R. (1986) Development of context-specific tolerance to morphine: Support for a dual-process interpretation. Behavioral Neuroscience 100:611–23. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pihl, R. O. & Altman, J. (1971) An experimental analysis of the placebo effect. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 11:91–95. [IK]Google ScholarPubMed
Pomerleau, O. F., Fertig, J., Baker, L. & Cooney, N. (1983) Reactivity to alcohol cues in alcoholics and non-alcoholics: Implications for a stimulus control analysis of drinking. Addictive Behaviors 8:1–10. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H. (1976) Behavior and learning. W. H. Freeman. [rJST]Google Scholar
Raffa, R. B. & Porreca, F. (1986) Evidence for a role of conditioning in the development of tolerance to morphine-induced inhibition of gastrointestinal transit. Neuroscience Letters 67:229–32. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rescorla, R. A. (1988) Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is. American Psychologist 43:151–60. [IK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rickels, K., Lipman, R. & Raab, E. (1966) Previous medication, duration of illness, and placebo response. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 142:548–54. [IK, rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rovetto, F. (1979) Treatment of chronic constipation by classical conditioning techniques. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 10:143–46. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segal, M. & Shapiro, K. L. (1959) A clinical comparison study of the effects of resperine and placebo on anxiety. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 81:392–98. [IK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegel, S. (1975) Evidence from rats that morphine tolerance is a learned response. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 89:498–506. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegel, S. (1983) Classical conditioning, drug tolerance, and drug dependence. In: Research advances in alcohol and drug problems, vol. 7, ed. Israel, Y., Glaser, F. B., Kalant, H., Popham, R. E., Schmidt, W., & Smart, R. G.. Plenum Press. [IK]Google Scholar
Siegel, S. (1989) Pharmacological conditioning and drug effects. In: Psychoactive Drugs: Tolerance and Sensitization, ed. Goudie, A. J. & Emmett-Oglesby, M. W.. Humana Press. [AJG]Google Scholar
Sinclair, J. D. & Taira, T. (1988) Hangover hyperthermia in rats: Relation to tolerance and external stimuli. Psychopharmacology 94:161–66. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, R. P. (1987) Objective changes in intrauterine pressure during placebo treatment of dysmenorrhea. Pain 29:59–66. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staiger, P. K. & White, J. M. (1988) Conditioned alcohol-like and alcohol-opposite responses in humans. Psychopharmacology 95:87–91. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, R. F. & Spencer, W. A. (1966) Habituation: A model phenomenon for the study of neuronal substrates of behavior. Psychological Review 73:16–43. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tiffany, S. T. & Maude-Griffin, P. M. (1988) Tolerance to morphine in the rat: Associative and nonassociative effects. Behavioral Neuroscience 102:534–43. [AJG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Traut, E. F. & Passarelli, E. W. (1957) Placebos in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatic conditions. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 16:18–22. [IK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkkan, J. S. (1989a) Classical conditioning: The new hegemony. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12(1):121–79. [IK, rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turkkan, J. S. (1989b) Classical conditioning beyond the reflex: An uneasy rebirth. (Author's Response to commentaries) Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12(1):161–79. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turkkan, J. S., McCaul, M. E. & Stitzer, M. L. (1989) Psychophysiological effects of alcohol-related stimuli. II: Enhancement with alcohol availability. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 13:392–98. [rJST]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, A. R. (1976) Priming in STM: An information processing mechanism for self-generated or retrieval generated depression in performance. In: Habituation: Perspectives from Child Development, Animal Behavior and Neurophysiology, ed. Tighe, T. J. & Leaton, R. N.. Erlbaum. [AJG]Google Scholar
Zukin, P., Arnold, D. G. & Kessler, C. (1959) Comparative effects of phenaglycodol and meprobromate on anxiety reactions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 129:193–95. [IK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar