Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-16T05:20:21.328Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Neuropsychological inference with an interactive brain: A critique of the “locality” assumption

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Martha J. Farah
Martha J. Farah
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104–6196 Electronic mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

When cognitive neuropsychologists make inferences about the functional architecture of the normal mind from selective cognitive impairments they generally assume that the effects of brain damage are local, that is, that the nondamaged components of the architecture continue to function as they did before the damage. This assumption follows from the view that the components of the functional architecture are modular, in the sense of being informationally encapsulated. In this target article it is argued that this “locality” assumption is probably not correct in general. Inferences about the functional architecture can nevertheless be made from neuropsychological data with an alternative set of assumptions, according to which human information processing is graded, distributed, and interactive. These claims are supported by three examples of neuropsychological dissociations and a comparison of the inferences obtained from these impairments with and without the locality assumption. The three dissociations are: selective impairments in knowledge of living things, disengagment of visual attention, and overt face recognition. In all three cases, the neuropsychological phenomena lead to more plausible inferences about the normal functional architecture when the locality assumption is abandoned. Also discussed are the relations between the locality assumption in neuropsychology and broader issues, including Fodor's modularity hypothesis and the choice between top-down and bottom-up research approaches.

Keywords

brain lesionscognitive architectureface recognitionlocalizationmodularityneural netsneuropsychologysemantics vision
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 17 , Issue 1 , March 1994 , pp. 43 - 61
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allport, D. A. (1985) Distributed memory, modular subsystems, and dysphasia. In: Current perspectives in dysphasia, ed. Newman, S. K. & Epstein, R.. Churchill Livingstone. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Allport, D. A. (1989) Visual attention. In: Foundations of cognitive science, ed. Posner, M. I.. MIT Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1978) Arguments concerning representation for mental imagery. Psychological Review 85:249–77. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ansell, B. & Flower, C. (1982) Aphasic adults' use of heuristic and structural linguistic cues for analysis. Brain and Language 16:62–72. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auerbach, S. H. (1986) Neuroanatomical correlates of attention and memory disorders in traumatic brain injury: An application of neurobehavioral subtypes. Journal of Head Trauma and Rehabilitation 1:1–12. [SLS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basso, A., Capitani, E. & Laiacona, M. (1988) Progressive language impairment without dementia: A case with isolated category specific semantic defect. Journal of Neurology, Ncurosurgery and Psychiatry 51:1201–7. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, R. M. (1984) Autonomic recognition of names and faces in prosopagnosia: A neurophysiological application of the Guilty Knowledge Test. Neuropsychologia 22:457–69. [JDa]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrmann, M. & Bub, D. (1992) Surface dyslexia and dysgraphia: Dual routes, a single lexicon. Cognitive Neuropsychology 9(3):209–58. [DCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benson, D. F. & Geschwind, N. (1989) The aphasias and related disturbances. In: Clinical neurology, ed. Joynt, R.. J. B. Lippincott. [SLS]Google Scholar
Bever, T. G., Fodor, J. A. & Carrett, M. (1968) A formal limitation of associationism. In: Verbal behavior and general behavior theory, ed. Dixon, T. R. & Morton, D. L.. Prentice-Hall. [JMC]Google Scholar
Biederman, I. (1990) Higher-level vision. In: Visual cognition and action, ed. Osherson, D. N., Kosslyn, S. M. & Hollerbach, J. M.. MIT Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Bishop, D. V. M. (1992) The underlying nature of specific language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 33:3–66. [RC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boring, E. G. (1942) Sensation and perception in the history of experimental psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [RS]Google Scholar
Broca, P. P. (1861) Nouvelle observation d'aphémie produite par une lésion de la partie postérieure des douxième et troisième circonvolutioiis frontales. Bulletin Société Anatomié (Paris) 6:398–407. [SLS]Google Scholar
Bruce, V., Burton, A. M. & Craw, I. (1992) Modelling face recognition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 335:121–28. [AMB]Google ScholarPubMed
Bruce, V. & Young, A. W. (1986) Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology 77:305–27. [AMB, JDa, RAM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bullinaria, J. A. (1993) Neural network models of reading without Wickelfeatures. (Submitted.) [JAB]Google Scholar
Bullinaria, J. A. & Chater, N. (1993) Double dissociation in artificial neural networks: Implications for neuropsychology. Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society.Erlbaum. [JAB, NC]Google Scholar
Burton, A. M., Bruce, V. & Johnston, R. A. (1990) Understanding face recognition with an interactive activation model. British Journal of Psychology 81:361–80. [AMB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burton, A. M., Young, A. W., Bruce, V., Johnston, R. A. & Ellis, A. W. (1991) Understanding covert recognition. Cognition 39:129–66. [rMJF, AMB, RC, AWY]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, J. I. D. (1992) In defense of the encoding-complex approach: Reply to McCloskey, Macaruso & Whetstone. In: The nature and origins of mathematical skills, ed. Campbell, J. I. D.. Elsevier. [JIDC]Google Scholar
Campbell, J. I. D. (1993) The architecture of numerical cognition: Modular or integrated mechanisms? International Journal of Psychology (in press). [JIDC]Google Scholar
Campbell, J. I. D. & Clark, J. M. (1988) An encoding-complex view of cognitive number processing: Comment on McCloskey, Sokol & Goodman (1986). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Central 117:204–14. [JIDC, JMC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, J. I. D. & Clark, J. M. (1992) Cognitive number processing: An encoding-complex perspective. In: The Nature and origin of mathematical skills, ed. Campbell, J. I. D.. Elsevier. [JIDC, JMC]Google Scholar
Campbell, J. I. D. & Oliphant, M. (1992) Representation and retrieval of arithmetic facts: A network-interference model and simulation. In: The nature and origin of mathematical skills, ed. Campbell, J. I. D.. Elsevier. [JMC]Google Scholar
Campbell, R. (1992) Speech in the head? Rhyme skill, reading and immediate memory in the deaf. In: Auditory imagery, ed. Reisberg, D.. Erlbaum. [RC]Google Scholar
Caplan, D. (1981) On the cerebral localization of linguistic functions: Logical and empirical issues surrounding deficit analysis and functional localization. Brain and Language 14:120–37. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caplan, D. & Futter, C. (1986) Assignment of thematic roles by an agrammatic aphasic patient. Brain and Language 27:117–35. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caramazza, A. (1984) The logic of neuropsychological research and the problem of patient classification in aphasia. Brain and Language 21:9–20. [aMJF, CS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caramazza, A. (1986) On drawing inferences about the structure of normal cognitive systems from the analysis of patterns of impaired performance: The case for single-patient studies. Brain and Cognition 5:41–66. [aMJF, BB, DCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caramazza, A. (1992) Is cognitive neuropsychology possible? Journal of Cognitive Neuroscicncc 4:80–95. [aMJF, DCP, CS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caramazza, A. & Hillis, A. E. (1990) Spatial representation of words in the brain implied by studies of a unilateral neglect patient. Nature 346:267–69. [CU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caramazza, A., Hillis, A. E., Rapp, B. C. & Romani, C. (1990) The multiple semantics hypothesis: Multiple confusions? Cognitive Neuropsychology 7:161–90. [aMJF, RAM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caramazza, A. & Zurif, E. B. (1976) Dissociation of algorithmic and heuristicprocesses in language comprehension: Evidence from aphasia. Brain and Language 3:572–82. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charcot, J. M. (1883) Un cas de suppression brusque et isolée de la vision mentale des signes et objets (formes et couleurs). Progres Medical 11:569–71. [JDa]Google Scholar
Chater, N. & Oaksford, M. (1990) Autonomy, implementation and cognitive architecture: A reply to Fodor and Pylyshyn. Cognition 34:93–107. [MO]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, J. M. & Campbell, J. I. D. (1991) Integrated versus modular theories of number skills and acalculia. Brain and Cognition 17:204–39. [JIDC, JMC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. D., Romero, R. D. & Farah, M. J. (in press) Disengaging from the disengage function: The relation of macrostructure to microstructure in parietal attentional deficits. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. [arMJF, GWH, DCP, CU]Google Scholar
Cohen, L. & Dehaene, S. (1991) Neglect dyslexia for numbers? A case report. Cognitive Neuropsychology 8:39–58. [CU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coltheart, M. (1984) Editorial. Cognitive Neuropsychology 1:1–8. [CWH]Google Scholar
Coltheart, M. (1985) Cognitive ncunipsychology and the study of reading. In: Attention and performance XI, ed. Posner, M. I. & Marin, O. S. M.. Erlbanm. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Corbetta, M., Miezin, F. M., Shulman, G. L. & Peterson, S. E. (1993) A PET study of visuospatial attention. Journal of Neuroscience 13:1202–26. [rMJF, MIP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowey, A. (1985) Aspects of cortical organization related to selective attention and selective impairments of visual perception. In: Attention and performance XI, ed. Posner, M. I. & Marin, O. S. M.. Erlbaum. [GWH]Google Scholar
Crick, F. (1989) The recent excitement about neural networks. Nature 337:129–32. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daffner, K., Ahern, G., Weintranb, S. & Mesulam, M.-M. (1990 Dissociated neglect behavior following sequential strokes to the right hemisphere. Annals of Neurology 28:97–101. [M-MM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Damasio, A. R. & van Hoesen, G. W. (1985) The limbic system and the localization of herpes simplex encephalitis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery. and Psychiatry 48:297–301. [SLS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. (1989) Lesion analysis in nenropsychology. Oxford University Press. [SLS]Google Scholar
Davidoff, J. & Landis, T. (1990) Recognition of unfamiliar faces in prosopagnosia. Neuropsychologia 28:1143–61. [JDa]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, S. N., Lester, R. A., Reymann, K. G. & Collingridge, G. L. (1989) Temporarily distinct pre- and post-synaptic mechanisms maintain longterm potentiation. Nature 338:283–321. [RvH]Google Scholar
de Haan, E. H. F., Bauer, R. M. & Greve, K. W. (1992) Behavioural and physiological evidence for covert face recognition in a prosopagnosic patient. Cortex 28:77–95. [arMJF, JDa, DCP, RVG, RvH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Haan, E. H. F., Young, A. & Newcombe, F. (1987a) Faces interfere with name classification in a prosopagnosic patient. Cortex 23:309–16. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Haan, E. H. F., Young, A. & Newcombe, F. (1987b) Face recognition without awareness. Cognitive Neuropsychology 4:385–416. [aMFJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennett, D. C. & Kinsbourne, M. (1992) Time and the observer: The where and when of consciousness in the brain. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:183–247. [RVG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeRenzi, E. (1982) Disorders of space exploration and cognition. Wiley. [CU]Google Scholar
DeRenzi, E. (1986) Current issues in prosopagnosia. In: Aspects of face processing, ed. Ellis, H. D., Jeeves, M. A., Newcombe, F. & Young, A.. Martinus Nijhoff. [aMJF]Google Scholar
DeRenzi, E., Gentilini, M. & Barbieri, C. (1989) Auditory neglect. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 52:613–17. [CU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixon, N. F. (1981) Preconscious processing. Wiley. [JDa]Google Scholar
Dodd, B. & Murphy, J. (1992) Language without sound: Prelingual deafness in development. In: Mental lives: Case studies in cognition, ed. Campbell, R.. Blackwell. [RC]Google Scholar
Downing, C. J. & Pinker, S. (1985) The spatial structure of visual attention. In: Attention and performance XI, ed. Posner, M. I. & Marin, O. S. M.. Erlbaum. [CU]Google Scholar
Driver, J. & Halligan, P. W. (1991) Can visual neglect operate in object-centered co-ordinates? An affirmative single-case study. Cognitive Neuropsychology 8:475–96. [CU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, J. C. & Kirsner, K. (1988) Discovering functionally independent mental processes: The principle of reversed association. Psychological Review 95:91–101. [JAB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eagleson, H. & Carey, D. P. (1992) Connectionist networks do not model brain function. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 15:734–35. [DPC]Google Scholar
Ellis, A. & Young, A. W. (1988) Human cognitive neuropsychology. Erlbaum. [RAM]Google Scholar
Farah, M. J. (1990) Visual agnosia: Disorders of object recognition and what they tell us about normal vision. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [rMJF]Google Scholar
Farah, M. J. (1991) Patterns of co-occurrence among the associative agnosias: Implications for visual object representation. Cognitive Neuropsychology 8:1–19. [RC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farah, M. J. (in press) Visual perception and visual awareness after brain damage: A tutorial overview. In: Conscious and unconscious infomiation processing: Attention and performance XIV, ed. M. Moscovitch & C. Umiltá. MIT Press. [rMJF]Google Scholar
Farah, M. J. & McClelland, J. L. (1991) A computational model of semantic memory impairment: Modality-specificity and emergent category-specificity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 120(4):339–57. [arMJF, BB, CWH, RAM, DCP, RvH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farah, M. J., McMullen, P. A. & Meyer, M. M. (1991) Can recognition of living things be selectively impaired? Neuropsychologia 29:185–93. [arMJF, RvH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farah, M. J., O'Reilly, R. C. & Vecera, S. P. (1993) Dissociated overt and covert recognition as an emergent property of lesioned neural networks. Psychological Review 100:571–88. [arMJF, RC, GWH, DCP, RvH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, J. A. & Ballard, D. (1982) Connectionist models and their properties. Cognitive Science 6:205–54. [SLS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, J. A., Fanty, M. A. & Goddard, N. (1988) Computing with structured neural networks. IEEE Computer 21(3):91–103. [JDi]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felleman, D. J. & Van Essen, D. C. (1991) Distributed hierarchical processing in the primate cerebral cortex. Cerebral Cortex 1:1–47. [DPC, JDi, RS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrier, D. (1886) The functions of the brain. Smith, Elder. [aMJF, JDa]Google Scholar
Fiorelli, M., Blin, J., Bakchine, S., Laplane, D. & Baron, J. C. (1991) PET studies of cortical diaschisis in patients with motor hemi-neglect. Journal of Neurological Science 104:135–42. [M-MM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flourens, P. (1846) Phrenology examined, 2nd ed. (trans. De Lucena Meigs, Charles). Hogan & Thompson. [TvG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1983) The modularity of mind. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [arMJF, NC, RAM, DCP, CU, TvG, RvH, EZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A., Garrett, M. & Swinney, D. (1992) A modular effect in parsing. Unpublished manuscript, Cognitive Science Department, Rutgers University. [EZ]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. & Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1988) Connectionism and cognitive architecture: A critical analysis. Cognition 28:3–71. [DPC, MO]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forster, K. (1979) Levels of processing and the structure of the language processor. In: Sentence processing: Psycholinguistic studies presented to Merrill Garrett, ed. Cooper, W. & Walker, E.. Erlbaum. [EZ]Google Scholar
Foster, C. L. (1992) Algorithms, abstraction and implementation. Academic Press. [MO]Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1891/1953) On aphasia, trans. Stengel, E.. Imago. [JDa, SLS]Google Scholar
Fuhrer, M. J. & Eriksen, C. W. (1960) The unconscious perception of the meaning of verbal stimuli. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 61:432–39. [JDa]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gainotti, G., Messerli, P. & Tissot, R. (1972) Quantitative analysis of unilateral spatial neglect in relation to lateralisation of cerebral lesions. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 35:545–50, [CU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrett, M. (1981) Objects of psycholinguistic inquiry. Cognition 10:97–101. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geschwind, N. (1985) Mechanisms of change after brain lesions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 457:1–11. ]JAB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cluck, M. A. & Rumelhart, D. E. (1990) Neuroscience and Connectionist theory. Erlbaum. [PS]Google Scholar
Goldberg, M. E. & Segraves, M. A. (1987) Visuospatial and motor attention in the monkey. Neuropsychologia 25:107–18. [M-MM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman-Rakie, P. S. (1987) Circuitry of primate prefrontal cortex and regulation of behavior by representational memory. In: Handbook of physiology: Nervous system. Vol. 5: Higher functions of the brain, ed. Plum, F.. American Psychological Society. [rMJF]Google Scholar
Goodale, M. A. & Milner, A. D. (1992) Separate visual pathways for perception and action. Trends in Neuroscience 15:20–25. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodale, M. A., Milner, A. D., Jakobson, L. S. & Carey, D. P. (1991) A neurological dissociation between perceiving objects and grasping them. Nature 349:154–56. [rMJF, DPC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, J., Morris, J. C., Sandson, J., McKeel, D. W. & Miller, J. W. (1990) Progressive aphasia: A precursor of global dementia? Neurology 40:423–29. [SLS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, R. L. (1961) The brain as an engineering problem. In: Current problems in animal behaviour, ed. Thorpe, W. H. & Zangwill, O. L.. Cambridge University Press. [RAM]Google Scholar
Grodzinsky, Y. (1986) Language deficits and the theory of syntax. Brain and Language 27:135–59. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grodzinsky, Y. (1990) Theoretical perspectives on language deficits. MIT Press. [YG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1987) Competitive learning: From interactive activation to adaptive resonance. Cognitive Science 11:23–63. [RvH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guariglia, C. & Antonucci, G. (1992) Personal and extrapersonal space: A case of neglect dissociation. Neuropsychologia 30:1001–9. [CU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halligan, P. W. & Marshall, J. C. (1991) Left neglect for near but not for space in man. Nature 350:498–500. [CU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halligan, P. W. & Marshall, J. C. (1992) Left visuo-spatial neglect: A meaningless entity? Cortex 28:525–35. [CU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, G. & Gordon, B. (1992) Neural subsystems for object knowledge. Nature 359:60–64. [RAM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, J., Berndt, R. S. & Caramazza, A. (1985) Category specific naming deficit following cerebral infarction. Nature (London) 316:439–40. [BB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatfield, F. M., Barber, J., Jones, C. & Morton, J. (1977) Object naming in aphasics: The lack of an effect of context or realism. Neuropsychologia 15:717–27. [RAM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hay, D. C. & Young, A. W. (1982) The human face. In: Normality and pathology in cognitive functions, ed. Ellis, A. W.. Academic Press. [AMB]Google Scholar
Heilman, K. M., Watson, R. T. & Valenstein, E. (1985) Neglect and related disorders. In: Clinical neuropsychology, 2nd ed., ed. Heilman, K. M. & Valenstein, E.. Oxford University Press. [rMJF]Google Scholar
Henderson, J. M. & Macquistan, A. D. (1993) The spatial distribution of attention following an exogenous cue. Perception & Psychophysics 53:221–30. [CU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hildreth, E. C. & Ullman, S. (1989) The computational study of vision. In: Foundations of cognitive science, ed. Posner, M. I.. MIT Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Hillis, A. E. & Caramazza, A. (1991) Category-specific naming and comprehension impairment: A double dissociation. Brain 114:2081–94. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinton, G. E. (1992) How neural networks learn from experience. Scientific American 267:105–9. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinton, G. E., McClelland, J. L. & Rumelhart, D. E. (1986) Distributed representations. In: Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, ed. Rnmelhart, D. E. & McClelland, J. L.. MIT Press. [arMJF]Google Scholar
Hinton, G. E. & Shallice, T. (1991) Lesioning an attractor network: Investigations of acquired dyslexia. Psychological Review 98(1):74–95. [aMJF, AMB, NC, DCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Homa, D., Haver, B. & Schwartz, T. (1976) Perceptibility of schematic face stimuli: Evidence for a perceptual Gestalt. Memory and Cognition 4:176–85. [JDa]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphreys, G. W. & Bruce, V. (1989) Visual cognition: Computational, experimental and neuropsychological perspectives. Erlbaum. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Humphreys, G. W. & Evett, L. J. (1985) Are there independent lexical and nonlexical routes in word processing? An evaluation of dual-route theory of reading. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:689–740. [JAB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, G. W., Freeman, T. & Muller, H. J. (1992) Lesioning a connectionist model of visual search: Selective effects of distractor grouping. Canadian Journal of Psychology 46:417–60. [aMJF, AMB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphreys, G. W. & Riddoch, M. J. (1987) Visual object processing: A cognitive neuropsychological approach. Erlbaum. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Humphreys, G. W. & Riddoch, M. J. (1993) Interactions between object- and space-vision revealed through neuropsychology. In: Attention and performance XIV, ed. Meyer, D. E. & Kornblum, S.. MIT Press. [aMJF, GWH]Google Scholar
Jackendoff, J. A. (1987) Consciousness and the computational mind. Cambridge University Press. [RvH]Google Scholar
Jackson, J. H. (1873) On the anatomical and physiological localization of movements in the brain. Lancet 1:84–85, 162–64, 232–34. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, J. H. (1878) On affections of speech from diseases of the brain. Brain 1:304–30. [SLS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, R. A. & Jordan, M. I. (1992) Computational consequences of a bias toward short connections. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 4:323–36. [DPC, GWH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jakobson, L. S., Archibald, Y. M., Carey, D. P. & Goodale, M. A. (1991) A kinematic analysis of reaching and grasping movements in a patient recovering from optic ataxia. Neuropsychologia 29:803–9. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jared, D., McRae, K. & Seidenberg, M. (1990) The basis of consistency effects in word naming. Journal of Memory & Language 29:687–715. [rMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelley, H. H. (1992) Common-sense psychology and scientific psychology. Annual Review of Psychology 43:1–25. [RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kertez, A., ed. (1983) Localization in neuropsychology. Academic Press. [SLS]Google Scholar
Kettner, R., Marcario, J. & Port, N. (1993) A neural network model of cortical activity during reaching. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 5:14–33. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimberg, D. Y. & Farah, M. J. (in press) A unified account of cognitive impairments following frontal lobe damage: The role of working memory in complex, organized behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Kinsbourne, M. (1970) A model for the mechanism of unilateral neglect of space. Transactions of the American Neurological Association 95:143–46. [MK]Google Scholar
Kinsbourne, M. (1971) Cognitive deficit: Experimental analysis. In: Psychobiology, ed. McGaugh, J. L.. Academic Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Kinsbourne, M. (1977) Hemi-neglect and hemispheric rivalry. In: Advances in neurology, ed. Weinstein, E. A. & Friedland, R. P.. Raven Press. [arMJF]Google Scholar
Kinsbourne, M. (1987) Mechanisms of unilateral neglect. In: Neurophysiological and neuropsychological aspects of spatial neglect, ed. Jeannerod, M.. Elsevier. [MK]Google Scholar
Kinsbourne, M. (1988) Integrated field theory of consciousness: In: Concept of consciousness in contemporary science, ed. Marcel, A. J. & Bisiach, E.. Oxford University Press. [rMJF, MK, RVG]Google Scholar
Kinsbourne, M. (1993) Integrated cortical field model of consciousness. In: Ciba Foundation Symposium 174: Experimental and Theoretical Studies of Consciousness, ed. Bock, G. R. & Marsh, J.. Wiley. [rMJF, RVG]Google Scholar
Kinsbourne, M. (in press) Orientational bias model of unilateral neglect: Evidence from attentional gradients within hemispace. In: Unilateral neglect: Clinical and experimental studies, ed. I. H. Robertson & J. C. Marshall. Erlbaum. [MK]Google Scholar
Klahr, D., Langley, P. & Neches, R. (1987). Production system models of learning and development, MIT Press. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosslyn, S. M., Flynn, R. A., Amsterdam, J. B. & Wang, G. (1990) Components of high-level vision: A cognitive neuroscience analysis and accounts of neurological syndromes. Cognition 32:203–77. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosslyn, S. M. & Van Kleek, M. (1990) Broken brains and normal minds: Why Humpty Dumpty needs a skeleton. In: Computational neuroscience, ed. Schwartz, E.. MIT Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Kunst-Wilson, W. R. & Zajonc, R. B. (1980) Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be recognized. Science 207:557–58. [RS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaBerge, D. (1990) Thalamic and cortical mechanisms of attention suggested by recent positron emission tomographic experiments. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2:358–72. [MIP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lakatos, I. (1970) Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In: Criticism and the growth of knowledge, ed. Lakatos, I. & Musgrave, A.. Cambridge University Press. [RvH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lashley, K. S. (1950) In search of the engram. In: Symposia for the Society for Experimental Biology, Number 4. Cambridge University Press. [SLS]Google Scholar
Levin, B. & Pinker, S., eds. (1991) Lexical and conceptual semantics. Cognition 41: Special issue. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luck, S. J., Hillyard, S. A., Mangun, G. R. & Gazzaniga, M. S. (1989) Independent hemispheric attentional systems mediate visual search in split-brain patients. Nature 342:543–45. [MIP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynch, J. C., Mountcastle, V. B., Talbot, W. H., & Yin, T. C. T. (1977) Parietal lobe mechanisms for directed visual attention. Journal of Neurophysiology 40:362–89. [M-MM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandler, G., Nakamura, Y. & Shebo van Zandt, B. J. (1987) Nonspecific effects of exposure on stimuli that cannot be recognized. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13:646–48. [RS]Google Scholar
Marie, P. (1906) The third left frontal convolution plays no special role in the function of language. In: Pierre Marie's papers on speech disorders, trans. Cole & Cole (1971). Hafner Press. [SLS]Google Scholar
Marin, O. S., Saffran, E. M. & Schwartz, M. (1976) Dissociation of language in aphasia: Implications for normal functions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 280:868–84. [CS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mark, V. W., Kooistra, C. A. & Heilman, K. M. (1988) Hemispatial neglect is affected by non-neglected stimuli. Neurology 38:1207–11. [CU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marr, D. (1982) Vision. Freeman. [RvH, MO]Google Scholar
Marshall, J. C. & Newcombe, F. (1966) Syntactic and semantic errors in paralexia. Neuropsychologia 4:169–76. [AWY]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Massaro, D. (1988) Some criticisms of connexionist models of human performance. Journal of Memory and Language 27:213–34. [RC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazzoni, P., Anderson, R. A. & Jordan, M. I. (1991a) A more biologically plausible learning rule for neural networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 88:4433–37. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mazzoni, P., Anderson, R. A. & Jordan, M. I. (1991b) A more biologically plausible learning rule than backpropagation applied to a network model of cortical area 7a. Cerebral Cortex 1:293–307. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCarthy, R. A. & Warrington, E. K. (1986) Phonological reading: Problems and paradoxes. Cortex 22:359–80. [RAM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarthy, R. A. & Warrington, E. K. (1990) Cognitive neuropsychology: A clinical introduction. Academic Press. [RAM, AWY]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. (1981) Retrieving general and specific information from stored knowledge of specifics. Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society:170–72. [AMB]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. (1991) Toward a theory of information processing in graded random, interactive networks. Technical Report PDP.CNS.91.1, Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University. [NC]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. & Elman, J. L. (1986) Interactive processes in speech perception: The Trace model. In: Parallel distributed processing, vol. 2, ed. Rumelhart, D. E. & McClelland, J. L.. MIT Press. [NC]Google Scholar
McClelland, J. L. & Humelhart, D. E. (1981) An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review 88:375–407. [rMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClelland, J. L. & Humelhart, D. E. (1982) An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 2. The contextual enhancement effect and some tests and extensions of the model. Psychological Review 89:60–94. [rMJF]Google Scholar
McCloskey, M. (1991) Networks and theories: The place of connectionism in cognitive science. Psychological Science 2:387–95. [rMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCloskey, M. (1992) Cognitive mechanisms in numerical processing: Evidence from acquired dyscalculia. Cognition 44:107–57. [JIDC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCloskey, M., Caramazza, A. & Basili, A. G. (1985) Cognitive mechanisms in number processing and calculation: Evidence from dyscalculia. Brain anil Cognition 4:171–96. [JIDC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCloskey, M., Macaruso, P. & Whetstone, T. (1992) The functional architecture of numerical processing mechanisms: Defending the modular model. In: The nature and origins of mathematical skills, ed. Campbell, J. I. D.. Elsevier. [JIDC, JMC]Google Scholar
McCloskey, M., Sokol, S. M. & Goodman, R. A. (1986) Cognitive processes in verbal-number production: Inferences from the performance of braindamaged subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 115:307–30. [JIDC, JMC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNeil, J. E. & Warrington, E. K. (1991) Prosopagnosia: A reclassification. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 43A:267–88. [rMJF, GWH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merigan, W. H. & Maunsell, J. H. R. (1993) How parallel are the primate visual pathways? Annual Review of Neuroscience 16:396–402. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mesulam, M.-M. (1981) A cortical network for directed attention and unilateral neglect. Annals of Neurology 10:309–25. [M-MM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mesulam, M.-M. (1990) Large-scale neurocognitive networks and distributed processing for attention, language and memory. Annals of Neurology 28:597–613. [M-MM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G. & Fellbaum, C. (1991) Semantic networks of English. Cognition 41:197–229. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milner, A. D. & Goodale, M. A. (1993) Visual pathways to perception and action. In: The visually responsive neuron: From basic neurophysiology to behavior (Progress in Brain Research, vol. 95), ed. Hicks, T. P., Molotehuikoff, S. & Quo, T.. Elsevier. [DPC]Google Scholar
Milner, A. D., Perrett, D. I., Johnston, R. S., Benson, P. J., Jordan, T. R., Heeley, D. W., Bettucci, D., Mortara, F., Mutani, R., Terazzi, E. & Davidson, D. L. W. (1991) Perception and action in visual form agnosia. Brain 114:405–28. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morecraft, R. J., Geula, C. & Mesulam, M.-M. (1993) Architecture of connectivity within a cingulo-fronto-parietal neurocognitive network for directed attention. Archives of Neurology 50:279–84. [M-MM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moscovitch, M. & Umiltà, C. (1990) Modularity and neuropsychology: Modules and central processes in attention and memory. In: Modular deficits in Alzheimer-type dementia, ed. Schwartz, M. F.. MIT Press. [aMJF, CU]Google Scholar
Moscovitch, M. & Umiltà, C. (1991) Conscious and nonconscious aspects of memory: A neuropsychological framework of modules and central systems. In: Perspectives on cognitive neuroscience, ed. Lister, R. G. & Weingartner, H. J.. Oxford University Press. [CU]Google Scholar
Movellan, J. R. (1990) Contrastive Hebbian learning in the continuous Hopfield model. In: Proceedings of the 1989 Connectionist Models Summer School, ed. Touretzky, D. S., Hinton, G. E. & Sejnowski, T. J.. Morgan Kaufmann. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Mozer, M. C. & Behrmann, M. (1990) On the interaction of selective attention and lexical knowledge: A connectionist account of neglect dyslexia. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2(2):96–123. [aMJF, DCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nebes, R. D. (1989) Semantic memory in Alzheimer's disease. Psychological Bulletin 106:377–94. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newcombe, F., Mehta, Z. & de Haan, E. F. (in press) Category-specificity in visual recognition. In: The neural bases of high-level vision: Collected tutorial essays, ed. M. J. Farah & G. Ratcliff. Erlbaum. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Norris, D. G., (1990) A dynamic-net model of human speech recognition. In: Cognitive models of speech processing: Psycholinguistic and cognitive perspectives, ed. Altmann, G.. MIT Press. [NC]Google Scholar
Oaksford, M. & Chater, N. (1991) Against logical cognitive science. Mind & Language 6:1–38. [MO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ogden, J. A. (1987) The “neglected” left hemisphere and its contribution to visuospatial neglect. In: Neurophysiological and neuropsychological aspects of spatial neglect, ed. Jeannerod, M.. North-Holland. [CU]Google Scholar
Paivio, A. (1986) Mental representations: A dual-coding approach. Oxford University Press. [JMC]Google Scholar
Patterson, K. E., Seidenberg, M. S. & McClelland, J. L. (1989) Connections and disconnections: Acquired dyslexia in a computational model of reading processes. In: Parallel distributed processing: Implications for psychology and neurobiology, ed. Morris, R. G. M.. Oxford University Press. [aMJF, AMB, NC, RAM, DCP]Google Scholar
Perenin, M.-T. & Vighetto, A. (1988) Optic ataxia: A specific disruption in visuomotor mechanisms. I. Different aspects of the deficit in reaching for objects. Brain 111:643–74. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pietrini, V., Nertimpi, T., Vaglia, A., Revello, M. G., Pinna, V. & Ferro-Milone, F. (1988) Recovery from herpes simplex encephalitis: Selective impairment of specific semantic categories with neuroradiological correlation. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgcry, and Psychiatry 51:1284–93. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinker, S. (1985) Visual cognition: An introduction. In: Visual cognition, ed. Pinker, S.. MIT Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Plaut, D. C. & Shallice, T. (1993) Perseverative and semantic influences on visual object naming errors in optic aphasia: A connectionist account. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 5(1):89–117. [DPC, DCP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plaut, D. C. & Shallice, T. (in press) Deep dyslexia: A case study of connectionist neuropsychology. Cognitive Neuropsychology. [DCP]Google Scholar
Popper, K. R. (1963) Conjectures and refutations: The growth of scientific knowledge. Routledge & Kegan Paul. [RvH]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. (1978) Chronometric explorations of mind. Erlbanm. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. (1980) Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 32:3–25. [CU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posner, M. I. (1988) Structures and functions of selective attention. In: Master lectures in clinical neuropsychology and brain function, research, measurement, and practice, ed. Boll, T. & Bryant, B.. American Psychological Association. [MIP]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Rothbart, M. K. (in press) Constructing neuronal theories of mind. In: High level neuronal theories of the brain, ed. C. Koch & J. Davis. MIT Press. [MIP]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., Walker, J. A., Friedrich, F. J. & Rafal, K. D. (1984) Effects of parietal lobe injury on covert orienting of visual attention. Journal of Neuroscience 4:1863–74. [aMJF, DPC, MK, CU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, M. I., Walker, J. A., Friedrich, F. J. & Rafal, K. D. (1987) How do the parietal lobes direct covert attention? Neuropsychologia 25:135–45. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prather, P., Shapiro, L., Zurif, E. & Swinney, D. (1991) Real-time examination of lexical processing in aphasics. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research (Special issue on sentence processing) 20:271–81. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pribram, K. H. (1971) Languages of the brain. Prentice-Hall. [MK]Google Scholar
Price, R. W. (1986) Neurobiology of human herpes virus infections. CRC Critical Reviews in Clinical Neurobiology 2:61–123. [SLS]Google Scholar
Raichle, M. E. (1989) Developing a functional anatomy of the human brain with positron emission tomography. Current Neurology 9:161–78. [SLS]Google Scholar
Reeke, G. N. Jr., & Sporns, O. (1993) Behaviorally based modelling and computational approaches to neuroscience. Annual Review of Neuroscience 16:507–623. [DPC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Renault, B., Signoret, J. L., Debruille, B., Breton, F. & Bolgert, F. (1989) Brain potentials reveal covert face recognition in prosopagnosia. Neuropsychologia 27:905–12. [JDa]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riddoch, M. J. & Humphreys, G. W. (1987) Visual object processing in optic aphasia: A case of semantic access agnosia. Cognitive Neuropsychology 4:131–85. [GWH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riddoch, M. J. & Humphreys, G. W. (1992) The smiling giraffe: An illustration of a visual memory disorder. In: Mental lives, ed. Campbell, R.. Blackwell. [GWH]Google Scholar
Robinson, D. L., Bowman, E. M. & Kertzman, C. (1991) Covert orienting of attention in macaque II: A signal in parietal cortex to disengage attention. Society of Neuroscience Abstracts 17:442. [rMJF, MIP]Google Scholar
Rosenberg, C. R. & Sejnowski, T. K. (1986) NETtalk: A parallel network that learns to read aloud. EE & CS Technical Report #JHU-EECS-86/01. Johns Hopkins University Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E. & McClelland, J. L. (1986) A general framework for parallel distributed processing. In: Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, ed. Rumelhart, D. E. & McClelland, J. L.. MIT Press. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. & McClelland, J. L. (1982) An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 2. The contextual enhancement effect and some tests and extensions of the model. Psychological Review 89:60–94. [rMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rumelhart, D. E. & McClelland, J. L. (1985) Levels indeed! A response to Broadbent. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 114:193–97. [MO]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E. & McClelland, J. L. (1986) Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Vol. 1: Foundations. MIT Press. [aMJF, PS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saffran, E. M. (1982) Neuropsychological approaches to the study of language. British Journal of Psychology 73:317–37. [CS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sartori, G. & Job, R. (1988) The oyster with four legs: A neuropsychological study on the interaction of visual and semantic information. Cognitive Neuropsychology 5:105–32. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schott, B., Jeannerod, M. & Zahin, M. Z. (1966) L'agnosie spatiale unilatérale: Perturbation en secteur des mécanismes d'exploration et de fixation du regard. Journal Médical de Lyon 47:169–95. [CU]Google Scholar
Schweieh, M. & Bruyer, R. (in press) Heterogeneity in the cognitive manifestations of prosopagnosia: The study of a group of single cases. Cognitive Neuropsychology. [JDa]Google Scholar
Searle, J. R. (1984) Minds, brains and science: The 1984 Reith lectures. British Broadcasting Corporation. [AWY]Google Scholar
Searle, J. R. (1992) The rediscovery of the mind. MIT Press. [AWY]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seidenberg, M. S. (1988) Cognitive neuropsychology and language: The state of the art. Cognitive Neuropsychology 5:403–26. [GWH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seidenberg, M. S. & McClelland, J. (1989) A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review 96:323–68. [rMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Semenza, C. (1993) Methodological issues. In: A dictionary of neuropsychology, ed. Beaumont, G. & Sergent, J.. Basil Blackwell. [CS]Google Scholar
Semenza, C., Bisiacchi, P. S. & Rosenthal, V. (1988) A function for cognitive neuropsychology. In: Perspectives on cognitive neuropsychology, ed. Denes, G., Semenza, C. & Bisiacchi, P. S.. Erlbaum. [CS]Google Scholar
Sergent, J. (1987) Information processing and laterality effects for object and face perception. In: Visual object processing: A cognitive neuropsychological approach, ed. Humphreys, G. W. & Riddoch, M. J.. Erlbaum. [GWH]Google Scholar
Shallice, T. (1988) From neuropsychology to mental structure. Cambridge University Press. [arMJF, BB, JAB, GWH, RAM, AWY, RVG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shallice, T. (1991) Précis of From neuropsychology to mental structure. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14:429–69. [CS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shallice, T. & Saffran, S. (1986) Lexical processing in the absence of explicit word identification: Evidence from a letter-by-letter reader. Cognitive Neuropsychology 3:429–58. [GWH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shankweiler, D. & Grain, S. (1986) Language mechanisms and reading disorders: A modular approach. Cognition 24:121–37. [YG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shepherd, G. M. (1990) The significance of real neuron architectures for neural network simulations. In: Computational neuroscience, ed. Schwartz, E. L.. MIT Press. [JDi]Google Scholar
Sheridan, J. & Humphreys, G. W. (1993) A verbal-semantic category-specific deficit. Cognitive Neuropsychology 10:143–84. [GWH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shillcock, R., Lindsey, G., Levy, J. & Chafer, N. (1992) A phonologically motivated input representation for the modelling of auditory word perception in continuous speech. Proceedings of the fourteenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Erlbaum. [NC]Google Scholar
Silveri, M. C. & Gianotti, G. (1988) Interaction between vision and language in category-specific semantic impairment. Cognitive Neuropsychology 5:677–709. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, N. & Tsimpli, I.-M. (1991) Linguistic modularity? A case of a savant-linguist. Lingua 84:315–51. [RC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sokol, S. M., Goodman-Schulman, R. & McCloskey, M. (1989) In defense of a modular architecture for the number processing system: Reply to Campbell & Clark. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 118 (1):105–10. [JMC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sokol, S. M., McCloskey, M., Cohen, N. J. & Aliminosa, D. (1991) Cognitive representations and processes in arithmetic: Inferences from the performance of brain-damaged patients. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 17:355–76. [JIDC]Google Scholar
Sparks, D. L., Lee, C. & Rohrer, W. H. (1990) Population coding of the direction, amplitude, and velocity of saccadic eye movements by neurons in the superior colliculus. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 55:805–11. [rMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spurzheim, J. G. (1815) The physiognomical system of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim. Baldwin, Craddock & Joy. [TvG]Google Scholar
Squire, L. R. (1987) Memory and brain. Oxford University Press. [rMJF]Google Scholar
Squire, L. R. (1992) Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological Review 99:195–231. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swinney, D. (1979) Lexical access during sentence comprehension: (Re)consideration of context effects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 18:645–59. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swinney, D. & Fodor, J. D., eds. (1989) Journal of Psycholinguistic Research (Special issue on sentence processing) 18(1). [EZ]Google Scholar
Swinney, D. & Osterhourt, L. (1990) Inference generation during auditory language comprehension. In: Inferences and text comprehension, ed. Graesser, A. & Bower, G.. Academic Press. [EZ]Google Scholar
Swinney, D., Zurif, E. B. & Nicol, J. (1989) The effects of focal brain damage on sentence processing: An examination of the neurological organization of a mental module. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 1:25–37. [EZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tegner, R. & Levander, M. (1991) Through a looking glass. A new technique to demonstrate directional hypokinesia in unilateral neglect. Brain 114:1943–51. [CU]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teller, D. Y. (1984) Linking propositions. Vision Research 9:1481–90. [RS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tippett, L. J. & Farah, M. J. (1992) A model of naming in Alzheimer's disease. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 30:444. [RAM]Google Scholar
Tippett, L. J. & Farah, M. J. (in press) A computational model of naming in Alzheimer's disease: Semantic, visual, and lexical factors. Neuropsychology. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1972) Episodic and semantic memory. In: Organization of memory, ed. Tulving, E. & Donaldson, W.. Academic Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1983) Elements of episodic memory. Oxford University Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Umiltà, C. (1988) Orienting of attention. In: Handbook of neuropsychology, vol. 1, ed. Boiler, F. & Grafman, J.. Elsevier. [CU]Google Scholar
Verfaellie, M., Rapcsak, S. Z. & Heilman, K. M. (1990) Impaired shifting of attention in Balint's syndrome. Brain and Cognition 12:195–204. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
von Klein, B. E. (1977) Inferring functional localization from neurological evidence. In: Explorations in the biology of language, ed. Walker, E.. Bradford Books/MIT Press. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K. (1975) The selective impairment of semantic memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 27:635–57. [BB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warrington, E. K. (1981) Neuropsychological studies of verbal semantic systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B 295:411–23. [BB]Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K. (1985) Agnosia: The impairment of object recognition. In: Handbook of clinical neurology, ed. Vinken, P. J., Bruyn, G. W. & Klawans, H. L.. Elsevier. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K. & McCarthy, R. (1983) Category specific access dysphasia. Brain 106:859–78. [aMJF, EZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warrington, E. K. & McCarthy, R. (1987) Categories of knowledge: Further fractionation and an attempted integration. Brain 110:1273–96. [arMJF, BB, EZ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warrington, E. K. & Shallice, T. (1969) The selective impairment of auditory verbal short-term memory. Brain 92:885–96. [AWY, EZ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warrington, E. K. & Shallice, T. (1984) Category specific semantic impairments. Brain 107:829–54. [aMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wasserman, G. S. (1992) Isomorphism, task dependence, and the multiple meaning theory of neural coding. Biological Signals 1:117–42. [GSW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiskrantz, L. (1968) Some traps and pontifications. In: Analysis of behavioural change, ed. Weiskrantz, L.. Harper & Row. [RAM]Google Scholar
Yantis, S. & Jonides, J. (1990) Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: Voluntary vs. automatic allocation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 16:121–34. [CU]Google Scholar
Young, A. W., de Haan, E. H., Newcombe, F. & Hay, D. C. (1990) Facial neglect. Neuropsychologia 28:391–415. [CU]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, A. W., Newcombe, F., Hellawell, D. & de Haan, E. H. F. (1989) Implicit access to semantic information. Brain and Cognition 11:186–209. [RvH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, M. P. & Yamane, S. (1992) Sparse population coding of faces in the inferotemporal cortex. Science 256:1327–31. [rMJF]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zurif, E. B. (1980) Language mechanisms: A neuropsycholinguistic perspective. American Scientist 68:305–34. [aMJF]Google Scholar
Zurif, E. B. & Swinney, D. (in press) The neuropsychology of language. In: Handbook of psycholinguistics, ed. M. Gernsbacher. Academic Press. [EZ]Google Scholar
Zurif, E. B., Swinney, D., Prather, P., Solomon, J. & Bushell, C. (in press) An on-line analysis of syntactic processing in Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia. Brain and Language. [EZ]Google Scholar