Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-lrblm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-08T14:39:27.625Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Game theory and the evolution of behaviour

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

J. Maynard Smith
J. Maynard Smith
Affiliation:
School of Biological Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, Sussex BN1 9OG, England
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Evolutionary game theory is a method of analysing the evolution of phenotypes (including types of behaviour) when the fitness of a particular phenotype depends onits frequency in the population. It was first applied to pairwise contests between animals. Such contests usually have some associated asymmetry, in size, prior residence, or age or sex status; the theory predicts that the asymmetry will be used as a cue to settlethe contest, and this is found to be the case. The theory can also be applied when individuals are competing against the population as a whole, or some part of it. In such cases, the evolution of variable behaviour - so-called mixed strategies - is predicted; actual examples of this are given. Game theory can be applied to the evolution of cooperative as well as of antagonistic behaviour. An analysis of the evolution of learning leads to testable predictions about learning behaviour.

Keywords

competitioncooperationevolutionevolutionarily stable strategiesgame theorylearningmatching lawmaximizationoptimizationprisoner's dilemmasexual selectionsociobiology
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 7 , Issue 1 , March 1984 , pp. 95 - 101
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1984

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, D. B. (1979) Brain mechanisms for offense, defense, and submission. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:201–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainslie, G. (1975) Specious reward: A behavioral theory of impulsiveness and impulse control. Psychological Bulletin 82:463–96. [SEGL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alberch, P. (1980) Ontogenesis and morphological diversification. American Zoologist 20:653–67. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alberch, P. & Alberch, J. (1981) Heterochronic mechanisms of morphological diversification and evolutionary change in the neotropical salamander Bolitoglossa occidentals (Amphibia: Plethodontidae). Journal of Morphology 167:249–64. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alberch, P., Gould, S. J., Oster, G. F. & Wake, D. B. (1979) Size and shape in ontogeny and phylogeny. Paleobiology 5:296–317. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alcock, J. (1979) Animal behavior: An evolutionary approach. Sinauer Associates. [DCB]Google Scholar
Andersson, M. (1980) Why are there so many threat displays? Journal of Theoretical Biology 86:773–81. [rJMS, JERS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnold, S. J. (1978) The evolution of a special class of modifiable behaviours in relation to environmental pattern. American Naturalist 122:415–28. [JRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Axelrod, R. (1981) The emergence of cooperation among egoists. American Political Science Review 75:306–18. [tarJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Axelrod, R. (1984) The evolution of cooperation. Basic Books. [rJMS]Google Scholar
Axelrod, R. & Hamilton, W. D. (1981) The evolution of cooperation. Science 211:1390–96. [tarJMS, RS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayala, F. J. (1972) Competition between species. American Scientist 60:348–57. [RJH]Google ScholarPubMed
Baker, R. R. (1972) Territorial behaviour of the mymphalid butterflies, Aglais urticac (L.) and Inachis io (L.) Journal of Animal Ecology 41:453–69. [taJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balph, M. H., Balph, D. F. & Romesburg, H. C. (1979) Social status signalling in winter flocking birds: An examination of a current hypothesis. Auk 96:78–93. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Barlow, G. W. (1962a) Ethology of the Asian teleost Badis badis. I. Locomotion, maintenance, aggregation and fright. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 54:175–88. [GWB]Google Scholar
Barlow, G. W. (1962) Ethology of the Asian teleost Badis badis. III. Aggressive behavior. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 19:29–55. [GWB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnard, C. J. & Sibly, R. M. (1981) Producers and scroungers: A general model and its application to captive flocks of house sparrows. Animal Behaviour 20:543–50. [taJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishop, D. T. & Cannings, C. (1978) A generalized war of attrition. Journal of Theoretical Biology 70:85–124. [rJMS, JEM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanchard, R. J. & Blanchard, D. C. (1977) Aggressive behavior in the rat. Behavioral Biology 21:197–224. [DCB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanchard, R. J. & Blanchard, D. C. (1981) The organization and modelling of animal aggression. In: The biology of aggression, ed. Brain, P. F. & Benton, D.. Sythoff & Noordhoff. [DCB]Google Scholar
Blanchard, R. J. & Blanchard, D. C. (1983) Affect and aggression. In: Advances in the study of aggression, vol. 1, ed. Blanchard, R. J.& Blanchard, D. C.. Academic Press. [DCB]Google Scholar
Bonner, J. T., ed. (1982) Evolution and development. Springer-Verlag. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brain, P. F. (1981) Differentiating types of attack and defense in rodents. In: Multidisciplinary approaches to aggression research, ed. Brain, P. F. & Benton., D.Elsevier. [DCB]Google Scholar
Britten, R. J. & Davidson, E. H. (1971) Repetitive and non-repetitive DNA sequences and a speculation on the origin of evolutionary novelty. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:111–33. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockmann, H. J., Grafen, A. & Dawkins, R. (1979) Evolutionarily stable nesting strategy in a digger wasp. Journal of Theoretical Biology 77:473–96. [JCM, tarJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, G. W. (1951) Iterative solution of games by fictitious play. In: Activity analysis of production and allocation, ed. Koopmans, T. C.. Wiley. [RS]Google Scholar
Burgess, J. W. (1976) Social spiders. Scientific American 03: 100–106. [rJMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bush, R. & Mosteller, F. (1955) Stochastic models for learning. Wiley. [JRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1960) Blind variation and selective retention in creative thought as in other knowledge processes. Psychological Review 67:380–400. [HJE]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caryl, P. G. (1979) Communication by agonistic displays: What can game theory contribute to ethology? Behaviour 68:136–69. [GWB, taJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charnov, E. L. (1976) Optimal foraging: The marginal value theorem. Theoretical Population Biology 9:129–36. [SEGL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charnov, E. L. (1982) The theory of sex allocation. Princeton University Press. [taJMS]Google ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Albon, S. D. (1979) The roaring of red deer and the evolution of honest advertisement. Behaviour 69:145–70. [tarJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collier, G. H. (1982) Determinants of choice. Nebraska symposium on motivation 1981. University of Nebraska Press. [AWL]Google Scholar
Collins, R., ed. (1983) Sociological theory 1983. Jossey-Bass. [TJF]Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection. John Murray. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1872) The expression of the emotions in man and animals. John Murray. [JERS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, N. B. (1978a) Ecological questions about territorial behaviour. In Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach, ed. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B.. Sinauer Associates. [DCB]Google Scholar
Davies, N. B. (1978b) Territorial defence in the speckled wood butterfly. (Pararge aegeria): The resident always wins. Animal Behaviour 26:138–47. [tarJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, N. B. & Halliday, T. M. (1978) Deep croaks and fighting behaviour in toads Bufo bufo. Nature 274:683–85. [taJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1976) The selfish gene. Oxford University Press. [AR]Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1980) Good strategy or evolutionarily stable strategy? In: Sociobiology: Beyond nature/nurture, ed. Barlow, G. W. & Silverberg, J.. Westivew Press. [rJMS]Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1982) The extended phenotype. Freeman. [RJH]Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. & Krebs, J. R. (1978) Animal signals: Information or manipulation. In: Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach, ed. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B.. Sinauer Associates. [GWB]Google Scholar
de Beer, G. (1965) Charles Darwin. Doubleday. [JCM]Google Scholar
de Villiers, P. A. (1977) Choice in concurrent schedules and a quantitative formulation of the law of effect. In: Handbook of operant behavior, ed. Honig, W. K. & R, J. E.. Staddon. Prentice-Hall. [AWL, JCM]Google Scholar
deVore, I. (1965) Male dominance and mating behavior in baboons. In: Sex and behavior, ed. Beach, F. A.. Wiley. [GWB]Google Scholar
Dominey, W. (1980) Female mimicry in male bluegill sunfish – a genetic polymorphism? Nature 284:546–48. [taJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eberhard, W. G. (1980) Horned beetles. Scientific American, 03: 124–31. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Einhorn, H. J. & Hogarth, R. M. (1981) Behavioral decision theory: Processes of judgment and choice. Annual Review of Psychology 32:53–88. [HJE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estabrook, G. F. & Jesperson, D. C. (1974) The strategy of a predator encountering a model-mimic system. American Naturalist 108:443–57. [JRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fararo, T. J. (1973) Mathematical sociology. Wiley. [TJF]Google Scholar
Fischer, E. A. (1980) The relationship between mating system and simultaneous hermaphroditism in the coral reef fish, Hypoplectrus nigricans (Serranidae). Animal Behaviour 28:620–33. [GWB, taJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, R. A. (1930) The genetical theory of natural selection. Clarendon Press. [taJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flannelly, K. J. & Blanchard, R. J. (1981) Dominance: Cause or description of social relationships. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:438–40. [DCB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flood, M., Lendenmann, K. & Rapoport, A. (1983) 2x2 games played by rats. Behavioral Science 28:65–78. [AR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fretwell, S. D. (1972) Seasonal environments. Princeton University Press. [tarJMS]Google Scholar
Geist, V. (1966) The evolution of horn-like organs. Behaviour 27:175–213. [rJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, M. (1974) About conventions. Second-Order 3(2):71–89. [MG]Google Scholar
Gilbert, M. (1981) Game theory and convention. Synthese 46:41–93. [MG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, M. (1983a) Agreements, conventions, and language. Synthese 54:375–407.Google Scholar
Gilbert, M. (1983b) Notes on the concept of a social convention. New Literary History 14:225–51. [MG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, M. (1983c) Some limitations of rationality. Paper presented at the New Jersey Regional Philosophical Association meetings. [MG]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. (1981) Roles of early experience in species-specific perceptual development. In: Development of perception, vol. 1, ed. Aslin, R. N.Alberts, J. R. & Petersen, M. R.. Academic Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G., Johnston, T. D. & Scoville, R. P. (1982) Conceptions of development and the evolution of behavior. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:284. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, M. R. & Charnov, E. L. (1980) Alternative male life histories in bluegill sunfish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 77:6937–40. [tarJMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hailman, J. P. (1982) Evolution and behavior: An iconoclastic view. In: Learning, development, and culture, ed. Plotkin, H. C.. Wiley. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1967) Extraordinary sex ratios. Science 156:477–88. [taJMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, W. D. (1979) Wingless and fighting males in figwasps and other insects. In: Sexual selection and reproductive competition in insects, ed. Blum, M. S. & Blum, N. A.Academic Press. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Hammerstein, P. & Parker, G. A. (1982) The asymmetric war of attrition. Journal of Theoretical Biology 96:647–82. [GWB, rJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, K. R. (1965) New directions in research on conflict resolution. Journal of Social Issues 21:44–66. [HJE]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, K. R. & Brehmer, B. (1973) Quasi-rationality and distrust: Implications for international conflict. In: Human judgment and social interaction, ed. Rappoport, L. & Summers, D. A.. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [HJE]Google Scholar
Harley, C. B. (1981) Learning the evolutionarily stable strategy. Journal of Theoretical Biology 89:611–33. [GMH, TDJ, JRK, SEGL, tarJMS, JEM, RS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hazlett, B. (1978) Shell exchange in hermit crabs: Aggression, negotiation or both? Animal Behaviour 26:1278–79. [taJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hazlett, B. (1983) Interspecific negotiations: Mutual gain in exchanges of a limiting resource. Animal Behaviour 31:160–63. [GWB]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1961) Relative and absolute strength of response as a function of frequency of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 4:267–72. [SEGL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J. (1970) On the law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 13:243–66. [GMH, SEGL, taJMS, JEM, JERS]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1982) Melioration as behavior dynamism. In: Quantitative analysis of behavior, vol. 2, Matching and maximizing accounts, ed. Commons, M. L.Herrnstein, R. J. & Rachlin, H.. Ballinger. [RJH]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Heyman, G. M. (1979) Is matching compatible with reinforcement maximization on concurrent variable interval variable ratio? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 31:209–23. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Vaughan, W. Jr (1980) Melioration and behavioral allocation. In: Limits to action: The allocation of individual behavior, ed. Staddon, J. E. R.. Academic Press. [RJH, AWL]Google Scholar
Heyman, G. M. (1979) A Markov model description of changeover probabilities on concurrent variable-interval schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 31:41–51. [RJH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyman, G. M. (1982) Is time allocation unconditioned behavior? In: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 2, Matching and maximizing accounts, ed. Commons, M. L.Herrnstein, R. J. & Rachlin, H.. Ballinger. [RJH]Google Scholar
Heyman, G. M. & Luce, R. D. (1979) Operant matching is not a logical consequence of maximizing reinforcement rate. Animal Learning and Behavior 7:133–40. [RJH]Google Scholar
Hinde, R. A. (1970) Animal behaviour: A synthesis of ethology and comparative psychology. 2d ed.McGraw-Hill. [GWB]Google Scholar
Hinde, R. A. (1981) Animal signals: Ethological and games-theory approaches are not incompatible. Animal Behaviour 29:535–42. [GWB]Google Scholar
Hinson, J. M. & Staddon, J. E. R. (1983) Hill-climbing by pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:25–47. [SEGL, JERS]Google Scholar
(in press) Matching, maximizing and hill climbing. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. [JERS]Google Scholar
Hogarth, R. M. (1982) On the surprise and delight of inconsistent responses. In: New directions for methodology of social and behavioral science: Question framing and response consistency, ed. Hogarth, R. M.. Jossey-Bass. [HJE]Google Scholar
Houston, A. I., Kacelnik, A. & McNamara, J. (1982) Some learning rules for acquiring information. In: Functional ontogeny, ed. McFarland, D. J.. Pitman. [JRK]Google Scholar
Hughes, H. S. (1958) Consciousness and society. Random House. [TJF]Google Scholar
Jaisson, P. (1975) Ľimpregnation dans ľontogenèse des comportements de soins aux cocons chez la jeune formi rousse (Formica polyceta Forst.). Behaviour 52:1–37. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, T. D. & Gottlieb, G. (1981) Epigenesis and phylogenesis: Reordering the priorities. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:243. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kacelnik, A. (1979) Studies of foraging behaviour in great tits (Parus major). D.Phil, thesis, Oxford University. [JRK]Google Scholar
Kacelnik, A. & Krebs, J. R. (in press) Foraging in a changing environment. In: Sixth Harvard symposium on quantitative analyses of behaviour: Foraging, ed. Commons, M. L.Nevin, A. & Shettleworth, S. J.. Ballinger. [JRK]Google Scholar
Kalmus, H. (1941) Defence of source of food by bees. Nature 148:228. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1981) Averaging theory. In: Quantification of steady state behaviour, ed. Bradshaw, C. M.Szabadi, E. & Lowe, C. F.. North Holland, Elsevier. [JRK]Google Scholar
Kluijver, H. N. (1951) The population ecology of the great tit, Parus m. major L. Ardea 39:1–135. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B., eds. (1978) Behavioural ecology. Sinauer Associates. [JERS]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R., Kacelnik, A. & Taylor, P. (1978) Test of optimal sampling by foraging great tits. Nature 275:27–31. [JRK, SEGL]Google Scholar
Kummer, J., Götz, W. & Angst, W. (1974) Triadic differentiation: An inhibitory process protecting pair bonds in baboons. Behaviour 49:62–87. [taJMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuo, Z. Y. (1967) The dynamics of behavior development. Random House. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. (1979) Foraging and reinforcement schedules in the pigeon: Optimal and non-optimal aspects of choice. Animal Behaviour 27:875–86. [SEGL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. (1981) Correlation and contiguity in foraging theory. In: Advances in analysis of behaviour vol. 2, Predictability, correlation and contiguity, ed. Harzem, P. & Zeiler, M. D.. Wiley. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. (1983) The analysis of need. In: Animal cognition and behavior, ed. Mellgren, R. L.. North Holland. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Lea, S. E. G. [ Dow, S. M. (in press) The integration of reinforcements over time. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Lester, N. P. (in press) The “feed-feed” decision: How goldfish solve the patch depletion problem. Behaviour. [JRK]Google Scholar
Lewis, D. (1969) Convention. Harvard University Press. [MG]Google Scholar
Lewis, D. (1972) Languages and language. In: Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science, vol. 7, ed. Gunderson, Keith. University of Minnesota Press. [MG]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1979) Taste aversion and the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological Bulletin 86:276–96. [AWL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. & Mazur, J. E. (1981) Maintenance of self-control acquired through a fading procedure: Follow-up on Mazur and Logue (1978). Behavior Analysis Letters 1:131–37. [SEGL, AWL]Google Scholar
Luce, R. D. & Raiffa, H. (1957) Games and decisions: Introduction and critical survey. Wiley. [RJH, JCM, RS]Google Scholar
McFarland, D. J. (1974) Time-sharing as a behavioural phenomenon. Advances in the Study of Behaviour 5:201–25. [rJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackintosh, N. J. (1974) The psychology of animal learning. Academic Press. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Malone, J. C. Jr, (1982) The second offspring of general process learning theory: Overt behavior as the ambassador of the mind. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 38:205–9. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marler, P. & Tamura, M. (1964) Culturally transmitted patterns of vocal behavior in sparrows. Science 141:1483–86. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marschak, T. & Selten, R. (1978) Restabilizing responses, inertia supergames, and oligopolistic equilibria. Quarterly Journal of Economics 92:71–93. [RS]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. (1956) Fertility, mating behaviour and sexual selection in Drosophila subobscura. Journal of Genetics 54:261–79. [rJMS]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. (1977) Parental investment: A prospective analysis. Animal Behaviour 25:1–9. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. (1978) Optimisation theory in evolution. Annual Review of Ecological Systems 9:31–56. [RJH, rJMS]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. (1979) Game theory and the evolution of behaviour. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B205:475–8. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. (1981) Will a sexual population evolve to an ESS? American Naturalist 117:1015–18. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. (1982a) Evolution and the theory of games. Cambridge University Press. [TJF, MG, tarJMS, RS, JERS, GCW]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. (1982b) Introduction. In: Current problems in sociobiology, ed. King's College Sociobiology Group, Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. [GWB]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. (1983) Game theory and the evolution of cooperation. In: Evolution from moleades to men, ed. Bendali, D. S.. Cambridge University Press. [rJMS]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. & Price, G. R. (1973) The logic of animal conflict. Nature 246:15–18. [GWB, DCB, RS]Google Scholar
Maynard, Smith J. & Riechert, S. E. (in press) A conflicting tendency model of spider agonistic behaviour: Hybrid-pure population line comparisons. Animal Behaviour. [rJMS]Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1960) The emergence of evolutionary novelties. In: Evolution after Darwin, vol. 1, The emergence of life, ed. Tax, S.. University of Chicago Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1981) Optimization theory fails to predict performance of pigeons in a two-response situation. Science 214:823–25. [RJH, SEGL, AWL, taJMS, JEM, HR, JERS]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. & Logue, A. W. (1978) Choice in a “self-control” paradigm: Effects of a fading procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 30:11–17. [SEGL, AWL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milinsky, M. (1979) An evolutionarily stable feeding strategy in sticklebacks. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 51:36–40. [taJMS, RS]Google Scholar
Morse, W. H. & Kelleher, R. T. (1977) Determinants of reinforcement and punishment. In: Handbook of operant behavior, ed. Honig, W. K. & Staddon, J. E. R.. Prentice-Hall. [JCM]Google Scholar
Nash, J. F. (1951) Non-cooperative games. Annals of Mathematics 54:286–95. [RS]Google Scholar
Orians, G. H. & Pearson, N. E. (1979) On the theory of central place foraging. In: Analysis of ecological systems, ed. Horn, D. F.. Ohio State University Press. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Oster, G. & Alberch, P. (1982) Evolution and bifurcation of developmental programs. Evolution 36:444–59. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Packer, C. (1977) Reciprocal altruism in Papio anubis. Nature 265:441–43. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Packer, C. (1979) Male dominance and reproductive activity in Papio anubis. Animal Behaviour 27:37–45. [GWB]Google Scholar
Packer, C. & Pusey, A. E. (1982) Cooperation and competition within coalitions of male lions: Kin selection or game theory? Nature 296:740–42. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Parker, G. A. (1970) The reproductive behaviour and the nature of sexual selection in Scatophaga stercoraria L. (Diptera: Scatophagidae). II. The fertilization rate and the spatial and temporal relationships of each sex around the site of mating and oviposition. Journal of Animal Ecology 39:205–28. [tarJMS]Google Scholar
Parker, G. A. (1974) Assessment strategy and the evolution of animal conflicts. Journal of Theoretical Biology 47:223–43. [GWB, tarJMS]Google Scholar
Parker, G. A. & Rubenstein, D. I. (1981) Role assessment, reserve strategy, and acquisition of information in asymmetric animal conflicts. Animal Behaviour 29:2212–40. [GWB]Google Scholar
Parsons, T. (1964) Evolutionary universals in society. American Sociological Review 29:339–57. [TJF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prelec, D. (1982) Matching, maximizing and the hyperbolic reinforcement feedback function. Psychological Review 89:189–230. [RJH, JEM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Premack, D. (1971) Catching up with common sense or two sides of a generalization: Reinforcement and punishment. In: The nature of reinforcement, ed. Glaser, R.. Academic Press. [JCM]Google Scholar
Pulliam, H. R. & Dunford, C. (1980) Programmed to learn. Columbia University Press. [JRK]Google Scholar
Rachlin, H. (1971) On the tautology of the matching law. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 15:249–51. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H., Battalio, R., Kagel, J. & Green, L. (1981) Maximization theory in behavioral psychology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:371–88. [JEM, HR]Google Scholar
Rapoport, A. (1967) Escape from paradox. Scientific American 217:50–56. [AR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapoport, A. & Chammah, A. M. (1965) Prisoners dilemma: A study of conflict and cooperation. University of Michigan Press. [RS]Google Scholar
Renner, K. E. (1964) Delay of reinforcement: A historical review. Psychological Bulletin 61:341–61. [AWL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riechert, S. E. (1982) Spider interaction strategies: Communication vs. coercion. In: Spider communication, ed. Witt, P. N. & Rovner, J. S.. Princeton University Press. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Robinson, J. (1951) An iterative method of solving a game. Aunals of Mathematics 54:296–301. [RS]Google Scholar
Rohwer, S. & Ewald, P. W. (1981) The cost of dominance and advantage of subordinance in a badge signalling system. Evolution 35:441–54. [taJMS]Google Scholar
Sackett, G. P., Holm, R. A. & Ruppenthal, G. C. (1976) Social isolation rearing: Species differences in behavior of macaque monkeys. Developmental Psychology 12:283–88. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Schelling, T. C. (1960) The strategy of conflict. Harvard University Press. [MG]Google Scholar
Schelling, T. C. (1978) Micromotives and macrobehavior. Norton. [RJH]Google Scholar
Schiffer, S. R. (1972) Meaning. Oxford University Press. [MG]Google Scholar
Schoener, T. W. (1983) Simple models of optimal feeding-territory size: A reconciliation. American Naturalist 121:608–29. [GWB, rJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schotter, A. (1981) The economic theory of social institutions. Cambridge University Press. [TJF, MG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Selten, R. (in press) Evolutionary stability in extensive 2-person games. Mathematical Social Sciences. [RS]Google Scholar
Shapley, L. S. (1964) Some topics in two-person games. In: Advances in game theory, ed. Dresher, M., Shapley, L. S. & Tucker, A. W.. Annals of Mathematical Studies no. 52. Princeton University Press. [RS]Google Scholar
Shimp, C. P. (1966) Probabilistically reinforced choice behavior in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 9:443–55. [JERS]Google Scholar
Shimp, C. P. (1969) Optimal behavior in free-operant experiments. Psychological Review 76:97–112. [SEGL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silberberg, A., Hamilton, B., Ziriax, J. M. & Casey, J. (1978) The structure of choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 4:368–98. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Simpson, M. J. A. (1968) The display of the Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens. Animal Behaviour Monograph 1:1–73. [GWB]Google Scholar
Spencer, H. (1897) The principles of psychology, vol. 1. Appleton. 1st ed., 1855. [JCM]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1980) Optimality analyses of operant behavior and their relation to optimal foraging. In: Limits to action: The allocation of individual behavior, ed. Staddon, J. E. R.. Academic Press. [JERS]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1983) Adaptive behavior and learning. Cambridge University Press. [JERS]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. & Hinson, J. M. (in press) Optimization is a result not a mechanism. Science. [JERS]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R., Hinson, J. M. & Kram, R. (1981) Optimal choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 35:397–412. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. & Motheral, S. (1978) On matching and maximizing in operant choice experiments. Psychological Review 85:436–44. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Steger, R. & Caldwell, R. L. (in press) Intraspecific deception by bluffing: A defense strategy of newly molted stomatopods (Arthropoda: Crustacea). Science. [GWB, rJMS]Google Scholar
Steiner, I. D. (1979) Social psychology. In: The first century of experimental psychology, ed. Hearst, E.. Erlbaum. [JCM]Google Scholar
Stephens, D. W. (1982) Stochasticity in foraging theory: Risk and information. D.Phil, thesis, Oxford University. [JRK]Google Scholar
Thaler, R. (1980) Toward a positive theory of consumer choice. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 1:39–60. [RHT]Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1913) Educational psychology, vol. 2. New York: Teacher's College. [JCM]Google Scholar
Timberlake, W. (1983) The emperor's clothes: Assumptions of the matching theory. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 2, Matching and maximizing accounts, ed. Commons, M. L., Herrnstein, R. J. & Rachlin, H.. Ballinger. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Toda, M. (1962) The design of a fungus-eater: A model of human behavior in an unsophisticated environment. Behavioral Science 7:164–83. [SEGL]Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1971) The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35–57. [tarJMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man (1871–1971), ed. Campbell, B. G.. Aldine-Atherton. [CWB]Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1974) Parent-offspring conflict'. American Zoologist 14:249–64. [GWB]Google Scholar
Ullman-Margalit, E. (1977) The emergence of norms. Oxford University Press. [MG]Google Scholar
Ursin, H. (1981) Neuroanatomical basis of aggression. In: Multidisciplinary approaches to aggression research, ed. Brain, P. F. & Benton, D.. Elsevier. [DCB]Google Scholar
van Rhijn, J. G. & Vodegal, R. (1980) Being honest about one's intentions: An evolutionary stable strategy for animal conflicts. Journal of Theoretical Biology 85:623–41. [GWB, rJMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaughan, W. Jr, (1981) Melioration, matching, and maximization. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 36:141–49. [RJH]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaughan, W. Jr, & Herrnstein, R. J. (in press) Stability, melioration, and natural selection. In: Advances in behavioral economics, vol. 1, ed. Green, L. & Kagel, J.. Ablex Publishing Corp. [RJH]Google Scholar
von Neumann, J. (1928) Zur Théorie der Gosellschaftsspiele. Mathematische Annalen 100:285–320. [AR]Google Scholar
Waddington, C. H. (1957) The strategy of the genes. Allen & Unwin. [rJMS]Google Scholar
Wagenaar, W. A. (1972) Generation of random sequences by human subjects: A critical survey of literature. Psychological Bulletin 77:65–71. [HJE]Google Scholar
Wilson, A. C. (1975) Evolutionary importance of gene regulation. Stadler Symposia on Genetics 7:117–33. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Witham, T. G. (1980) The theory of habitat selection: Examined and extended using Pemphigus. American Naturalist 115:449–66. [taJMS]Google Scholar