Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T23:24:10.301Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Contrasting approaches to a theory of learning

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Timothy D. Johnston
Timothy D. Johnston
Affiliation:
North Carolina Division of Mental Health, Research Branch, Dorothea Dix Hospital, Raleigh, N.C. 27611
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The general process view of learning, which guided research into learning for the first half of this century, has come under attack in recent years from several quarters. One form of criticism has come from proponents of the so-called biological boundaries approach to learning. These theorists have presented a variety of data showing that supposedly general laws of learning may in fact be limited in their applicability to different species and learning tasks, and they argue that the limitations are drawn by the nature of each species' adaptation to the particular requirements of its natural environment. The biological boundaries approach has served an important critical function in the move away from general process learning theory, but it is limited in its ability to provide an alternative to the general process approach. In particular, the biological boundaries approach lacks generality, it is in some respects subservient to the general process tradition, and its ecological content is in too many cases limited to ex post facto adaptive explanations of learning skills. A contrasting, ecological approach to learning, which can provide a true alternative to general process theory, is presented. The ecological approach begins by providing an ecological task description for naturally occurring instances of learning; this step answers the question: What does this animal learn to do? The next step is an analysis of the means by which learning occurs in the course of development, answering the question: How does the animal learn to do this? On the basis of such analyses, local principles of adaptation are formulated to account for the learning abilities of individual species. More global principles are sought by generalization among these local principles and may form the basis for a general ecological theory of learning.

Keywords

adaptationbehavioral biologybehaviorismecology of learninglearning theoryspecies-typical behavior
Type
Target Articles
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 4 , Issue 1 , March 1981 , pp. 125 - 139
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alcock, J. (1979) Animal behavior: An evolutionary approach. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Argyris, C. (1975) Dangers in applying results from experimental social psychology. American Psychologist 30:469–85. [LP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, R. B. & Wright, H. F. (1955) Midwest and its children: The psychological ecology of an American town. New York: Harper & Row. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Bateson, P. P. G. (1973) Internal influences on early learning in birds. In: Constraints on Learning, ed. Hinde, R. A. & Hinde, J. S., pp. 101–16. London: Academic Press. [PB]Google Scholar
Baum, W. M. (1973a) The correlation-based law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 20:137–53. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. (1973b) Time allocation and negative reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 20:313–22. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bekoff, M. & Fox, M. W. (1972) Postnatal neural ontogeny: Environment-dependent and/or environment-expectant? Developmental Psychobiology 5:323–41. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bitterman, M. E. (1975) The comparative analysis of learning. Science 188:699–709. [RCG, TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bitterman, M. E. (1976) Flavor aversion studies. Science 192:266–67. [AWL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bitterman, M. E. (1976) Issues in the comparative psychology of learning. In: Evolution of brain and behavior in vertebrates, ed. Masterton, R. B., Bitterman, M. E., Campbell, C. B. G. & Hotton, N., pp. 217–25. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Bitterman, M. E. & Woodard, W. T. (1976) Vertebrate learning: Common processes. In: Evolution of brain and behavior in vertebrates, ed. Masterton, R. B., Bitterman, M. E., Campbell, C. B. G. & Hotton, N., pp. 169–89. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Bitterman, M. E.; LoLordo, V. M.; Overmier, J. B. & Rashotte, M. E., eds. (1979) Animal learning: Survey and analysis. New York: Plenum Press. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bock, W. J. (1959) Preadaptation and multiple evolutionary pathways. Evolution 13:194–211. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bock, W. J. (1980) The definition and recognition of biological adaptation. American Zoologist 20:217–27. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bock, W. J. & von Wahlert, G. (1965) Adaptation and the form-function complex. Evolution 19:269–99. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolles, R. C. (1970) Species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning. Psychological Review 77:32–48. [TDJ, AWL, JAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolles, R. C. (1971) Species-specific defense reactions. In: Aversive conditioning and learning, ed. Brush, F. R., pp. 183–233. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolles, R. C. (1972) The avoidance learning problem. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 6, ed. Bower, G. H., pp. 97–145. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Brainerd, C. J. (1978) The stage question in cognitive-developmental theory. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1:173–213. [WRC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandon, R. N. (1978) Adaptation and evolutionary theory. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 9:181–206. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breitmeyer, B. G. (1980) Unmasking visual masking: A look at the “why” behind the veil of the “how.” Psychological Review 87:52–69. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breland, K. & Breland, M. (1961) The misbehavior of organisms. American Psychologist 16:681–84. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977) Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist 32:513–531. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979) The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [WRC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brower, L. P.; Cook, L. M. & Croze, H. J. (1967) Predator responses to artificial Batesian mimics released in a neotropical environment. Evolution 21:11–23. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, J. L. (1975) The evolution of behavior. New York: Norton. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Brown, P. L. & Jenkins, H. M. (1968) Auto-shaping of the pigeon's key-peck. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11:1–8. [AWL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brunswik, E. (1952) The conceptual framework of psychology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [MTG, LP, TDJ]Google Scholar
Burtt, E. H. Jr (1979) The behavioral significance of color. New York and London: Garland STPM Press. [JPH]Google Scholar
Cabanac, M. (1974) Thermoregulatory behavior. In: Environmental physiology, ed. Robertshaw, D., pp. 231–69. London: Butterworths. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1974) Evolutionary epistemology. In: The philosophy of Karl Popper, vol. 1, ed. Schlipp, P. A., pp. 413–63. LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Charlesworth, W. R. (1976) Human intelligence as adaptation: An ethological approach. In: The nature of intelligence, ed. Resnick, L., pp. 147–68. Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Charlesworth, W. R. (1978) Ethology: Understanding the other half of intelligence. Social Science Information 17:231–77. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charlesworth, W. R. (1979) An ethological approach to studying intelligence. Human Development 22:212–16. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, R. W. (1971) Einstein: The life and times. New York: World Publishing Co. [TRA]Google Scholar
Clarke, J. C.; Westbrook, R. F. & Irwin, J. (1979) Potentiation instead of overshadowing in the pigeon. Behavioral and Neural Biology 25:18–29. [SR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Harvey, P. H. (1979) Comparison and adaptation. Proceedings of the Boyal Society of London, Series B 205:547–65. [TDJ]Google ScholarPubMed
Collias, N. E. & Collias, E. C. (1956) Some mechanisms of family integration in ducks. Auk 73:378–400. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, J. O. (1953) A gradient theory of multiple-choice learning. Psychological Review 60:15–22. [JWK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curio, E. (1976) The ethology of predation. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. [ACK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. R. (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: John Murray. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. R. (1876) The movements and habits of climbing plants. 2nd ed.New York: D. Appleton. [MTG]Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. (1978) Beliefs about beliefs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1:568–70. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Villiers, P. A. (1977) Choice in concurrent schedules and a quantitative formulation of the law of effect. In: Handbook of operant behavior, ed. Honig, W. K. & Staddon, E. R., pp. 233–87. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. [AWL, JAN]Google Scholar
Dobzhansky, Th. (1956) What is an adaptive trait? American Naturalist 90:337–347. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobzhansky, Th. (1968) On some fundamental concepts of Darwinian biology. In: Evolutionary biology, vol. 2, ed. Dobzhansky, Th., Hecht, M. K. & Steere, W. M., pp. 1–34. New York: Appleton. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emlen, J. M. (1973) Ecology: An evolutionary approach. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Emlen, S. T. (1967a) Migratory orientation in the indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea. Part I: Evidence for the use of celestial cues. Auk 84:309–42. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emlen, S. T. (1967b) Migratory orientation in the indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea. Part II: Mechanism of migratory orientation. Auk 84:463–89. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emlen, S. T. (1969) The development of migratory orientation in young indigo buntings. Lining Bird 8:113–26. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Emlen, S. T. (1970) Celestial rotation: Its importance in the development of migratory orientation. Science 170:1198–1201. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emlen, S. T. (1972) The ontogenetic development of orientation capabilities. In: Animal orientation and navigation, ed. Caller, S. R., Schmidt-Koenig, K., Jacobs, G. J. & Belleville, R. F., pp. 191–210. Washington, D.C.: NASA (SP-262). [TDJ, JLL]Google Scholar
Emlen, S. T. (1975) Migration: Orientation and navigation. In: Avian biology, vol. 5, ed. Farner, D. S. & King, J. R., pp. 129–219. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ, JLL, HCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emlen, S. T. & Oring, L. W. (1977) Ecology, sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems. Science 197: 215–23. [PB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galef, B. G. & Osborne, B. (1978) Novel taste facilitation of the association of visual cues with toxicosis in rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 92:907–16. [MTG, TDJ, SR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carcia, J., Ervin, F. R. & Koelling, R. A. (1966) Learning with prolonged delay of reinforcement. Psychonomic Science 5:121–22. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Garcia, J. & Ervin, F. R. (1968) Gustatory-visceral and telereceptor-cutaneous conditioning - adaptations in internal and external milieus. Communications in Behavioral Biology Part A, 1:389–415. [JG]Google Scholar
Garcia, J. & Koelling, R. A. (1966) Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science 4:123–24. [JG, TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garcia, J.; McGowan, B. K. & Creen, K. F. (1969) Biological constraints on conditioning. In: Classical Conditioning II: Current research and theory, ed. Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F., Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University Press. [JG]Google Scholar
Garcia, J. & Hankins, W. G. (1975) The evolution of bitter and the acquisition of toxiphobia. In: Olfaction and taste V, ed. Denton, D. A. & Coghlan, J. P., pp. 39–45. New York: Academic Press. [JG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garcia, J.; Palmerino, C. C.; Rusiniak, K. W. & Kiefer, S. W. (1980, in press) Taste aversions and the nurture of instinct. In: The Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, ed. McCaugh, J. L. & Thompson, R. F.. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation. [JG]Google Scholar
Garcia, J. & Rusiniak, K. W. (1980) What the nose learns from the mouth. In: Chemical Signals, ed. Muller-Schwarze, D. & Silverstein, R. M., pp. 141–56. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation. [JG, SR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1966) On semantic pitfalls of biological adaptation. Philosophy of Science 33:147–53. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1974) The economy of nature and the evolution of sex. Berkeley: University of California Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Gibbon, J.; Berryman, R. & Thompson, R. L. (1974) Contingency spaces and measures in classical and instrumental conditioning. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:585–605. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbs, J. A. (1979) The meaning of ecologically oriented inquiry in contemporary psychology. American Psychologist 34:127–40. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1966) The senses considered as perceptual systems. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. [TDJ, JK]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1977) The theory of affordances. In: Perceiving, acting and knowing: Towards an ecological psychology, ed. Shaw, R. & Bransford, J., pp. 67–82. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [TDJ, JK]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [WRC, JK]Google Scholar
Classman, R. B. (1977) How can so little brain hold so much knowledge? Applicability of the principle of natural selection to mental processes. Psychological Record 27:393–415. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzalez, R. C.; Ferry, M. & Powers, A. S. (1974) The adjustment of goldfish to reduction in magnitude of reward in massed trials. Animal Learning and Behavior 2:23–26. [RCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzalez, R. C., Potts, A., Pitcoff, K. & Bitterman, M. E. (1972) Runway performance of goldfish as a function of complete and incomplete reduction in amount of reward. Psychonomic Science 27:305–07. [RCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goss-Custard, J. D. (1980) Feeding behavior of Redshank, Tringa totanus, and optimal foraging theory. In: Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological, and psychological approaches, ed. Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D., pp. 115–33. New York: Garland Publishing Inc. [ACK]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. (1971) Development of species identification in birds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G. (1976) The roles of experience in the development of behavior and the nervous system. In: Neural and behavioral specificity, ed. Gottlieb, G., pp, 25–54. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottlieb, G. (1978) Development of species identification in ducklings: IV. Change in species-specific perception caused by auditory deprivation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 92:375–87. [TDJ, SJS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, G. (1979) Development of species identification in ducklings: V. Perceptual differentiation in the embryo. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 93:831–54. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottlieb, G. (1980) Development of species identification in ducklings: VI. Specific experience required to maintain species-typical perception in Peking ducklings. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 94:579–87. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1977) Ontogeny and phylogeny. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. [TRA]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1978) Ever since Darwin. New York: Norton. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1980) The evolutionary biology of constraint. Daedalus 109(2):39–52. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. & Lewontin, R. C. (1979) The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist program. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 205:581–98. [GWB, TDJ]Google Scholar
Gray, L. & Tardif, R. R. (1979) The development of feeding diversity in deermice. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 93:1127–35. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hailman, J. P. (1967) The ontogeny of an instinct: The pecking response in chicks of the laughing gull (Larus atricilla L.) and related species. Behaviour Supplement 15:1–159. [JPH, TDJ]Google Scholar
Hailman, J. P. (1969) How an instinct is learned. Scientific American 221:98–106. [RCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hailman, J. P. (1976) Uses of the comparative study of behavior. In: Evolution, brain, and behavior: Persistent problems, ed. Masterton, R. B., Hodos, W. & Jerison, J., pp. 13–22. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [JPH]Google Scholar
Hailman, J. P. (1977a) Bee dancing and evolutionary epistemology. American Naturalist, 111:187–89. [JPH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hailman, J. P. (1977b) Optical signals: Animal communication and light. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press. [JPH]Google Scholar
Hailman, J. P. (1979) Environmental light and conspicuous colors. In: The behavioral significance of color, ed. Burtt, E. H. Jr, pp. 289–354. New York and London: Garland STPM Press. [JPH]Google Scholar
Hanson, N. (1969) Perception and discovery. An introduction to scientific inquiry. San Francisco: Freeman. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1970) On the law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 13:243–66. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J. & Hineline, P. N. (1966) Negative reinforcement as shock frequency reduction. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 9:421–30. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinde, R. A. (1973) Constraints on learning - an introduction to the problems. In: Constraints on learning: Limitations and predispositions, ed. Hinde, R. A. & Stevenson, J.-Hinde, pp. 1–19. New York: Academic Press. [PB, TDJ]Google Scholar
Hinde, R. A. (1975) The concept of function. In: Function and evolution in behavior: Essays in honor of Professor Niko Tinbergen, FRS, ed. Baerends, G., Beer, C. G. & Manning, A., pp. 3–15. Oxford: Clarendon Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Hoffman, H. S. & Ratner, A. (1973) A reinforcement model of imprinting: Implications for socialization in monkeys and man. Psychological Review 80:527–544. [RCG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogan, J. A. (1977) The ontogeny of food preferences in chicks and other animals. In: Leartting mechanisms in food selection, ed. Baker, L. M., Best, M. & Domjan, M., pp. 71–97. Waco, Tex.: Baylor University Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Mollis, K. L. (in press) Pavlovian conditioning of signal-centered action patterns and autonomic behavior: A biological analysis of function. Advances in the Study of Behavior. [SJS]Google Scholar
Hovland, C. I. (1951) Human learning and retention. In: Handbook of experimental psychology, ed. Stevens, S. S., pp. 613–89. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [WMS]Google Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1929) A functional interpretation of the conditioned reflex. Psychological Review 36:498–511. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1937) Mind, mechanism and adaptive behavior. Psychological Review 44:1–32. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1945) The place of innate individual and species differences in a natural-science theory of behavior. Psychological Review 52:55–60. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. (1957) Concluding remarks. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, 22:415–27. [WMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. (1967) The ecological theater and the evolutionary play. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Hutchinson, G. E. (1978) An introduction to population ecology. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [JK]Google Scholar
Immelmann, K. (1975) Ecological significance of imprinting and early learning. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 6:15–37. [WRC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, M. (1970) Developmental neurobiology. New York: Holt. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Jeffords, M. R.; Stemburg, J. G. & Waldbauer, G. P. (1979) Batesian mimicry: Field demonstration of the survival value of pipevine swallowtail and monarch color patterns. Evolution 33:275–86. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, H. M. (1979) Animal learning and behavior theory. In: The first century of experimental psychology, ed. Hearst, E., pp. 177–228. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Johnson, C.; Beaton, R. & Hall, K. (1975) Poison-based avoidance learning in non-human primates: Use of visual cues. Physiology and Behavior 14:403–07. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, T. D. (in press) Selective costs and benefits in the evolution of learning. In: Advances in the study of behavior, vol. 13, ed. Rosenblatt, J. S., Hinde, R. A., Beer, C. G. & Busnel, M.-C.. New York: Academic Press. [TFJ]Google Scholar
Johnston, T. D. (in preparation) “Learning” and “development” as concepts in the study of behavioral change. To appear in: Readings and essays in evolutionary epistemology, ed. Plotkin, H. C.. London: John Wiley & Sons. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Johnston, T. D. & Turvey, M. T. (1980) An ecological metatheory for theories of learning. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 14, ed. Bower, G. H., pp. 147–205. New York: Academic Press. [TRA, TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamil, A. C. (1978) Systematic foraging by a nectar-feeding bird, the amakihi (Loxops virens). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 92:388–96. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamil, A. C. & Sargent, T. D. eds. (1980) Foraging behavior: Ecological, ethological and psychological approaches. New York: Carland Publishing Inc. [ACK]Google Scholar
Kamil, A. C.; Peters, J. & Lindstrom, F. (in press) An ecological perspective on the study of the allocation of behavior. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior II. Matching and Maximizing Accounts, ed. Commons, M. L., Herrnstein, R. J. & Rachlin, H.. New York: Ballinger. [ACK]Google Scholar
Kamin, L. J. (1968) “Attention-like” processes in classical conditioning. In: Miami symposium on the prediction of behavior: Aversive stimulation, ed. Jones, M. R., pp. 9–31. Miami: University of Miami Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Kamin, L. J. (1969) Predictability, surprise, attention, and conditioning. In: Punishment and aversive behavior, ed. Campbell, B. A. & Church, R. M., pp. 279–96. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Kantor, J. R. (1971) The aim and progress of psychology and other sciences. Chicago: Principia Press. [JCM]Google Scholar
Kimble, G. A. (1973) Scientific psychology in transition. In: Contemporary approaches to learning and memory, ed. McGuigan, F. J. & Lumsden, D. B., pp. 1–19. Washington, D.S.: V. H. Winston & Sons. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. (1978) Optimal foraging: Decision rules for predators. In: Bahavioural ecology, ed. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B., pp. 23–63. Oxford: Blackwell. [ACK]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R.; Erichsen, J. T.; Webber, M. I. & Charnov, E. L. (1977) Optimal prey selection in the great tit (Parus major). Animal Behaviour 25:30–38. [ACK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohler, Wolfgang (1925) The mentality of apes. London: Routledge & K. Paul. (Translated from the German.) [JK]Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. S. (1962) The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Kuo, Z. Y. (1922) How are our instincts acquired? Psychological Review 29:344–65. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuo, Z. Y. (1929) The net result of the anti-heredity movement in psychology. Psychological Review 36:181–99. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuo, Z. Y. (1967) The dynamics of behavior development. New York: Random House. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Lachman, J. L. & Lachman, R. (1979) Theories of memory organization and human evolution. In: Memory organization and structure, ed. Puff, R. C., pp. 133–193. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ, JLL]Google Scholar
Lachman, J. L. & Lachman, R. (1980) Picture-naming: Retrieval and activation of long-term memory. In: New directions in memory and aging: Proceedings of the George Talland Memorial Conference, ed. Poon, L. W., Fozard, J. L., Cermak, L. S., Arenberg, D., and Thompson, L. W., pp. 313–43. [JLL]Google Scholar
Lachman, R.; Lachman, J. L. & Butterfield, E. C. (1979) Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [JLL]Google Scholar
Lakatos, I. (1970) Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In: Criticism and the growth of knowledge, ed. Lakatos, I. & Musgrave, A., pp. 91–195. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lattal, K. A. (1974) Combinations of response-reinforcer dependence and independence. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour 22:357–62. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lea, S. E. G. (1979) Foraging and reinforcement schedules in the pigeon: Optimal and non-optimal aspects of choice. Animal Behavior 27:821–828. [ACK, SJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehrman, D. S. (1953) A critique of Konrad Lorenz's theory of instinct. Quarterly Review of Biology 28:337–63. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehrman, D. S. (1962) Varieties of learning and memory in animals. In: Macromolecular specificity and biological memory, ed. Schmitt, F. O., pp. 108–10. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Lehrman, D. S. (1970) Semantic and conceptual issues in the nature-nurture problem. In: Development and evolution of behavior. Essays in memory of T. C. Schneirla, ed. Aronson, L. R., Tobach, E., Lehrman, D. S. & Rosenblatt, J. S., pp. 17–52. San Francisco: Freeman. [TDJ, SJS]Google Scholar
Leigh, E. G. (1971) Adaptation and diversity. San Francisco: Freeman. [TRA]Google Scholar
Lett, B. T. (1980) Taste potentiates color-sickness associations in pigeons and quail. Animal Learning and Behavior 8:193–98. [AWL, SR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1978) Adaptation. Scientific American 239:212–30. [TRA, TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewontin, R. C. (1979) Sociobiology as an adaptationist program. Behavioral Science 24:5–14. [TDJ, BS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lockard, R. B. (1971) Reflections on the rise and fall of comparative psychology: Is there a message for us all? American Psychologist 26:168–179. [ACK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1978) John B. Watson and the continuity of the species. Behaviorism 6:71–79. [AWL]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1979) Taste aversion and the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological Bulletin 86:276–296. [TDS, AWL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logue, A. W. (1980) Visual cues for illness-induced aversions in the pigeon. Behavioral and Neural Biology 28:372–77. [AWL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Logue, A. W. (in press a) The origins of behaviorism. In: A history of modern psychology: Concepts, methods, viewpoints, ed. Buxton, C.. New York: Academic Press. [AWL]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (in press b) The growth of behaviorism. In: A history of modern psychology: Concepts, methods, viewpoints, ed. Buxton, C.. New York: Academic Press. [AWL]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W. (in press c) The generality of taste aversion learning in humans. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior: Acquisition, ed. Commons, M. L., Wagner, A. R. & Herrnstein, R. J.. Cambridge, Mass.Ballinger Publishing Co. [AWL]Google Scholar
LoLordo, V. M. (1979) Constraints on learning. In: Animal learning: Survey and analysis, ed. Bitterman, M. E., LoLordo, V. M., Overmier, J. B. & Rashotte, M. E., pp. 473–504. New York: Plenum Press. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorenz, K. (1941) Kant's doctrine of the a priori in the light of contemporary biology. General Systems, vol. VII. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1962, pp. 23–35. (Originally published in Blätter für Deutsche Philosophie, 1941, 15:94–125.) [WRC]Google Scholar
Lorenz, K. (1965) Evolution and modification of behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [TDJ, WMS]Google Scholar
Lorenz, K. (1969) Innate bases of learning. In: On the biology of learning, ed. Pribram, K. H., pp. 13–93. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Lorenz, K. (1977) Behind the mirror: A search for a natural history of human knowledge. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. [WRC]Google Scholar
Lynch, K. (1961) The image of the city. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
MacArthur, R. H. & Pianka, E. R. (1966) On optimal use of a patchy environment. American Naturalist 100:603–09. [ACK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacArthur, R. W. & Wilson, E. O. (1967) The theory of island biogeography. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [TRA]Google Scholar
McCall, R. B. (1977) Challenges to a science of developmental psychology. Child Development 48:333–44. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGurk, H., ed. (1977) Ecological factors in human development. New York: North Holland. [WRC]Google Scholar
McNamara, J. & Houston, A. (1980) The application of statistical decision theory to animal behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology 85:673–90. [SJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maier, N. R. F. & Schneirla, T. C. (1935) Principles of animal psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. [JWK]Google Scholar
Malone, J. C. Jr (1973) A note on general process learning theorists. Psychological Review 80:305. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malone, J. C. Jr (1975) The “paradigms” of learning. Psychological Record 25:479–89. [TDJ, JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malone, J. C. Jr (1978) Beyond the operant analysis of behavior. Behavior Therapy 9:584–91. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marler, P. R. (1970) A comparative approach to vocal development: Song learning in the white-crowned sparrow. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology Monographs 71 (No. 2, Pt. 2):1–25. [TDJ, JAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marler, P. R. (1977) Perception and innate knowledge. In: The nature of life, ed. Heidcamp, W. H., pp. 111–39. Baltimore: University Park Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Marler, P. R. & Mundinger, P. (1971) Vocal learning in birds. In: Ontogeny of vertebrate behavior, ed. Moltz, H., pp. 389–450. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ, SJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, H. L. & Langenheim, J. H. (1957) Language analysis and the concept environment. Ecology 38:325–40. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayr, E. (1963) Animal species and evolution. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayr, E. (1974) Behavior programs and evolutionary strategies. American Scientist 62:650–59. [TRA, WRC, HP]Google ScholarPubMed
Mayr, E. (1974) Teleological and teleonomic: A new analysis. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 14:91–117. [LP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medawar, P. B. (1969) Induction and intuition in scientific thought. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Miller, D. B. (1977) Roles of naturalistic observation in comparative psychology. American Psychologist 32:211–19. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, D. B. & Cottlieb, G. (1978) Maternal vocalizations of mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). Animal Behaviour 26:1178–94. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills, W. (1898) The nature and development of animal intelligence. London: T. Fisher Unwin. [WRC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, B. R. (1973) The role of directed Pavlovian reactions in simple instrumental learning in the pigeon. In: Hinde, R. A. and Stevenson-Hinde, J. (eds), Constraints on Learning. London: Academic Press. [SR]Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1976) Cognition and reality. San Francisco: Freeman. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Nevin, J. A. (1974) Response strength in multiple schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:389–408. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nevin, J. A. (1979) Reinforcement schedules and response strength. In: Reinforcement and the organization of behavior, ed. Zeiler, M. & Harzem, P.. Chichester, England: Wiley. [JAN]Google Scholar
Norman, D. A. (1980) Twelve issues for cognitive science. Cognitive Science 4:1–32. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nottebohm, F. (1970) Ontogeny of bird song. Science 167:950–56. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Novikoff, A. B. (1945) The concept of integrative levels and biology. Science 101:209–15. [WMS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Odum, E. P. (1959) Fundamentals of ecology. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. [WMS]Google Scholar
Oppenheim, R. W. (in press) Preformation and epigenesis in the origins of the nervous system and behavior: Issues, concepts and their history. In: Perspectives in ethology, vol. 5, ed. Bateson, P. P. G. & Klopfer, P. H.. New York: Plenum Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Orians, G. H. (1969) On the evolution of mating systems in birds and mammals. American Naturalist 103:589–603. [PB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pantin, C. F. A. (1951) Organic design. Advances in Science 30:1–13. [RAH]Google Scholar
Pantin, C. F. A. (1952) The elementary nervous system. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 140:147–68. [RAH]Google ScholarPubMed
Pavlov, I. P. (1927) Conditioned reflexes, tr. Anrep, G. V.. London: Oxford University Press. [JCM]Google Scholar
Pavlov, I. P. (1932) The reply of a physiologist to psychologists. Psychological Review 39:91–127. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pert, A. & Gonzalez, R. C. (1974) Behavior of the turtle (Chrysemys Picta Picta) in simultaneous, successive and behavioral contrast situations. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 87:526–38. [RCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petrinovich, L. (1973) Darwin and the representative expression of reality. In: Darwin and facial expression, ed. Ekman, P., pp. 223–56. New York: Academic Press. [LP]Google Scholar
Petrinovich, L. (1976) Molar reductionism. In: Knowing, thinking, and believing, ed. Petrinovich, L. & McGaugh, J. L., pp. 11–27. New York: Plenum Press. [LP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrinovich, L. (1979) Probabilistic functionalism: A conception of research method. American Psychologist 34:373–90. [TDJ, LP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petrinovich, L. (in press) A method for the study of development. In: Interdisciplinary study of development: The Bielefeld conference, ed. Immelmann, K., Barlow, G., Main, M. & Petrinovich, L.. New York: Cambridge University Press. [LP]Google Scholar
Pietrewicz, A. T. & Kamil, A. C. (1977) Visual detection of cryptic prey by blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata). Science 195:580–82. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pietrewicz, A. T. & Kamil, A. C. (1979) Search image formation in the blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata). Science 204:1332–33. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piaget, J. (1971) Biology and knowledge. Edinburgh: The University of Edinburgh Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Plotkin, H. C. (in press) The evolution of closed and open programmes of development. In: Development in the nervous system, ed. Garrod, D. R. & Feldman, J.. Cambridge University Press. [HCP]Google Scholar
Plotkin, H. C. & Odling-Smee, F. J. (1979) Learning, change and evolution: An enquiry into the teleonomy of learning. Advances in the Study of Behaviour 10:1–41. [HCP, SJS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polanyi, K. (1944) The great transformation. New York: Rinehart. [BS]Google Scholar
Premack, D. (1976) Intelligence in ape and man. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [PR]Google Scholar
Pyke, G. H.; Pulliam, H. R. & Charnov, E. L. (1977) Optimal foraging: A selective review of theory and tests. Quarterly Review of Biology 52:137–54. [ACK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pylyshyn, Z. (1978) Computational models and empirical constraints. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1:93–99. [JLL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rachlin, H. & Baum, W. M. (1972) Effects of alternative reinforcement: Does the source matter? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 18:231–41. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reed, E. S. (1979) An evolutionary analysis of intentional activity. Masters Thesis, University of Edinburgh. [WRC]Google Scholar
Reed, E. S. & Jones, R. K. (1979) James Gibson's ecological revolution in psychology. Philosophy of Social Science 9:189–204. [JK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. (1967) Pavlovian conditioning and its proper control procedures. Psychological Review 74:71–80. [PR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rescorla, R. A. (1972) Informational variables in Pavlovian conditioning. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 6, ed. Bower, G. H., pp. 1–46. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. (1980) Pavlovian second-order conditioning. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [AWL]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. & Holland, P. G. (1976) Some behavioral approaches to the study of learning. In: Neural mechanisms of learning and memory, ed. Rosenzweig, M. R. & Bennett, E. L., pp. 165–92. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. & Wagner, A. R. (1972) A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and non-reinforcement. In: Classical conditioning II, ed. Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F., pp. 64–99. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Revusky, S. (1971) The role of interference in association over a delay. In: Animal memory, ed. Honig, W. K. & James, P. H. R., pp. 155–213. New York: Academic Press. [PB, TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Revusky, S. (1977) Interference with progress by the scientific establishment: Examples from flavor aversion learning. In: Food aversion learning, ed. Milgram, N. W., Krames, L. & Alloway, T. M., pp. 53–71. New York: Plenum Press. [AWL]Google Scholar
Revusky, S. (1977) Learning as a general process with an emphasis on data from feeding experiments. In: Food aversion learning, ed. Milgram, N. W., Krames, L. & Alloway, T. M., pp. 1–51. New York: Plenum Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Revusky, S. & Garcia, J. (1970) Learned associations over long delays. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 4, ed. Bower, G. H. & Spence, J. T., pp. 1–84. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ, JAN]Google Scholar
Riley, A. L. & Baril, L. L. (1976) Conditioned taste aversions: a bibliography. Animal Learning and Behavior 4(B):1S–13S. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rozin, P. (1976a) The evolution of intelligence and access to the cognitive unconscious. In: Progress in psychobiology and physiological psychology, vol. 6, ed. Sprague, J. A. & Epstein, A. N., pp. 245–80. New York: Academic Press. [PR]Google Scholar
Rozin, P. (1976b) The selection of foods by rats, humans and other animals. In: Advances in the study of behavior, vol. 6, ed. Rosenblatt, J., Hinde, R. A., Beer, C. & Shaw, E., pp. 21–76. New York: Academic Press. [PR]Google Scholar
Rozin, P. (1977) The significance of learning mechanisms in food selection: Some biology, psychology and sociology of science. In: Learning mechanisms in food selection, ed. Barker, L. M., Best, M. & Domjan, M., pp. 557–89. Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press. [PR]Google Scholar
Rozin, P. & Kalat, J. W. (1971) Specific hungers and poison avoidance as adaptive specializations of learning. Psychological Review 78:459–86. [TDJ, JWK, PR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rozin, P. & Kalat, J. W. (1972) Learning as a situation-specific adaptation. In: Biological boundries of learning, ed. Seilgman, M. E. P. & Hager, J. L., pp. 66–96. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. [PR]Google Scholar
Sackett, G. P., ed. (1978) Observing behavior: Theory and applications in mental retardation. Baltimore: University Park Press. [WRC]Google Scholar
Schleidt, W. M. (1981) The behavior of organisms, as it is linked to genes and populations. In: Perspectives in Ethology, ed. Bateson, P. P. G. & Klopfer, P. H., Vol. 4, pp. 147–55. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation. [WMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schleidt, W. M. & Crawley, J. N. (1980) Patterns in the behaviour of organisms. Jounal for Social and Biological Structure 3:1–15. [WMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sehneirla, T. C. (1949) Levels in the psychological capacities of animals. In: Philosophy for the Future, ed. Sellars, R. W. et al. New York: Macmillan. [RAH]Google Scholar
Sehneirla, T. C. (1950) The relationship between observation and experiment in the field study of behavior. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 51:1022–44. [TDJ, JWK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sehneirla, T. C. (1956) Interrelationships of the “innate” and the “acquired” in instinctive behavior. In: L'Instinct dans le comportement des animaux et de l'homme, ed. Grasse, P.-P., pp. 387–452. Paris: Masson. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Sehneirla, T. C. (1971) Army ants: A study in social organization. San Francisco: Freeman. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. (1974) On going back to nature: A review of Seligman and Hager's Biological Boundaries of Learning. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:183–98. [TDJ, BS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. (1970) On the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological Review 77:406–18. [TDJ, JCM, LP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. & Hager, J. L., eds. (1972) Biological boundaries of learning. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. [JG, TDJ, AWL]Google Scholar
Sevenster, P. (1973) Incompatibility of response and reward. In: Constraints on Learning, ed. Hinde, R. A. and Stevenson-Hinde, J.. Academic Press: London. [SR]Google Scholar
Shaw, R. & Bransford, J., eds. (1977) Perceiving, acting, and knowing: Toward an ecological psychology. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [WRC]Google Scholar
Shaw, R. E. & Turvey, M. T. (in press) Coalitions as models for ecosystems: A realist perspective on perceptual organization. In: Perceptual organization, ed. Kubovy, M. & Pomerantz, J.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [TRA, JK]Google Scholar
Shettleworth, S. J. (1972) Constraints on learning. In: Advances in the study of behavior, vol. 4, ed. Lehrman, D. S., Hinde, R. A. & Shaw, E., pp. 1–68. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Shettleworth, S. J. (1975) Reinforcement and the organization of behavior in golden hamsters: Hunger, environment, and food reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 104:56–87. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Shettleworth, S. J. (in press) Function and mechanism in learning. In: Advances in analysis of beavior, vol. 3: Biological factors in learning, ed. Zeiler, M. & Harzem, P.. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [SJS]Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1969) The sciences of the artificial. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1980) Cognitive science: The newest science of the artificial. Cognitive Science 4:33–46. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1931) The concept of the reflex in the description of behavior. Journal of General Psychology 5:427–58. [JCM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1950) Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review 57:193–216. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, B. F. (1959) A case history in scientific method. In: Psychology: A study of a science, vol. 2, ed. Koch, S., pp. 359–79. New York: McGraw-Hill. [JG, AWL]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1966) The phylogeny and ontogeny of behavior. Science 153:1205–13. [AWL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slobodkin, L. B. (1968) Toward a predictive theory of evolution. In: Population biology and evolution, ed. Lewontin, R. C., pp. 187–205. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Slobodkin, L. B. & Rapoport, A. (1974) An optimum strategy of evolution. Quarterly Review of Biology 49:181–200. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Small, W. S. (1901) Experimental study of the mental processes of the rat. II American Journal of Psychology 12:206–39. [TDJ, HR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smart, J. J. C. (1963) Philosophy and scientific realism. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. [MTG]Google Scholar
Sommerhoff, G. (1950) Analytical biology. London: Oxford University Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Spence, K. W. (1947) The role of secondary reinforcement in delayed reward learning. Psychological Review 54:1–8. [JG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1975) Learning as adaptation. In: Handbook of learning and cognitive processes, vol. 2, ed. Estes, W. K., pp. 37–98. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. ed. (1980) Limits to action: The allocation of individual behavior. New York: Academic Press. [JAN]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. & Simmelhag, V. L. (1971) The “superstition” experiment: A reexamination of its implications for the principles of adaptive behavior. Psychological Review 78:3–43. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutherland, N. S. & Mackintosh, N. J. (1971) Mechanisms of animal discrimination learning. New York: Academic Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Taylor, E. F. & Wheeler, J. A. (1966) Spacetime physics. San Francisco: Freeman. [TRA]Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1965) Animal intelligence. New York: Hafner. [RCG, TDJ, AWL]Google Scholar
Thorpe, W. H. (1963) Learning and instinct in animals, 2nd ed.London: Methuen. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1951) The study of instinct. London: Oxford University Press. [RAH. TDJ, LP]Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N. (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20:410–29. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tinbergen, N.; Broekhuysen, G. K.; Feekes, F.; Houghton, J. C. W.; Kruuk, H. & Szulc, E. (1962) Egg shell removal by the black-headed gull, Larus ridibundus, L.; A behaviour component of camouflage. Behaviour 19:74–117. [PB]Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1938) The determiners of behavior at a choice point. Psychological Review 45:1–41. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1949) There is more than one kind of learning. Psychological Review 56:144–55. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turvey, M. T. & Shaw, R. E. (1979) The primacy of perceiving: an ecological reformulation of perception for understanding memory. In: Perspectives on memory research, ed. Nilsson, L.-G, pp. 167–222. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. [TRA, TDJ]Google Scholar
Uexküll, J. von (1957) A stroll through the worlds of animals and men. In: Instinctive behavior, ed. & trans. Schiller, C. H., pp. 5–80. New York: International University Press. [WMS]Google Scholar
Walls, G. L. (1942) The vertebrate eye and its adaptive radiation. Bloomfield Hills, Mich.: Cranbrook Institute of Science. [TDJ, PR, SR]Google Scholar
Whittaker, R. H., Levin, S. A. & Root, R. B. (1973) Niche, habitat, and ecotope. American Naturalist 107:321–38. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiens, J. A. (1970) Effects of early experience on substrate pattern selection in Rana aurora tadpoles. Copeia 1970:543–48. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wigner, E. (1967) Symmetries and reflections. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. [TRA]Google Scholar
Wilcoxon, H. C., Dragoin, W. B. & Kral, P. A. (1971) Illness-induced aversions in rat and quail: Relative salience of visual and gustatory cues. Science 171:826–28. [TDJ, AWL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, C. G. (1966) Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [TDJ]Google Scholar
Yarczower, M. & Hazlett, L. (1977) Evolutionary scales and anagenesis. Psychological Bulletin 84:1088–97. [RCG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed