Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T20:27:06.345Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Categories, life, and thinking

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Michael T. Ghiselin
Michael T. Ghiselin
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Classifying is a fundamental operation in the acquisition of knowledge. Taxonomic theory can help students of cognition, evolutionary psychology, ethology, anatomy, and sociobiology to avoid serious mistakes, both practical and theoretical. More positively, it helps in generating hypotheses useful to a wide range of disciplines. Composite wholes, such as species and societies, are “individuals” in the logical sense, and should not be treated as if they were classes. A group of analogous features is a natural kind, but a group of homologous features is not. Imposing hypotheses justified only on the basis of nominalist, realist, phenomenalist, or conceptualist metaphysics upon the neurophysiology of organisms or upon the causes of behavior exemplifies the “psychologist's fallacy” of William James. Levels should be distinguished from their members and from classes of levels, and the ontological status of entities ranked at levels should be made clear. It is important not to confuse such categories as substance and process with one another. Several genetical terms, such as “gene” and chromosome,” are even more equivocal than has been realized. Discussions about units of selection, behavior, and thinking suffer from the ambiguity of a “unit of” an entity. An important source of misunderstanding about natural selection is the habit of treating it as an “agent”: in an important sense, natural selection does not “act” at all.

Keywords

adaptationanalogycategorizationclassificationevolutionary epistemologyevolutionary psychologyhomologyindividuallevelssociobiologyspeciestaxonomyunits
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 4 , Issue 2 , June 1981 , pp. 269 - 283
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahr, P. R. & Youniss, J. (1970) Reasons for failure on the class-inclusion problem. Child Development 41:131–43. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, R. D. (1974) The evolution of social behavior. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5:325–83. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allee, W. C. et al. (1949) Principles of animal ecology. Philadelphia: Saunders. [PAC]Google Scholar
Attneave, F. (1950) Dimensions of similarity. American Journal of Psychology 63:516–56. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayala, F. J. (1970) Teleological explanations in evolutionary biology. Philosophy of Science 37:1–15. [PAC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayala, F. J. (1974) The concept of biological progress. In: Studies in the philosophy of biology, ed. Ayala, F. J. & Dobzhansky, Th.. Berkeley: University of California Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Beckner, M. (1959) The biological way of thought. New York: Columbia University Press. [ALC, MR]Google Scholar
Benzer, S. (1957) The elementary units of heredity. In: The chemical basis of heredity, ed. McElroy, W. D. & Glass, B., pp. 70–93. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Berlin, B. (1973) Folk systematics in relation to biological classification and nomenclature. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:259–71. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berlin, B. (1978) Ethnobiological classification. In: Cognition and categorization, ed. Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B., pp. 9–26. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [MTG]Google Scholar
Berlin, B.; Breedlove, D. E. & Raven, P. H. (1966) Folk taxonomies and biological classification. Science 154:273–75. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berlin, I. (1954) Historical inevitability. London: Oxford University Press. [ALC]Google Scholar
Blus, L. J. & Keahey, J. A. (1978) Variation in reproductivity with age in the brown pelican. Auk 95:128–34. [TDJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, L. (1978) Nonanalytic concept formation and memory for instances. In: Cognition and categorization, ed. Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B., pp. 169–211. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [MTG]Google Scholar
Bruner, J. (1957) On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review 64:123–52. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buck, R. C. & Hull, D. L. (1966) The logical structure of the Linnaean hierarchy. Systematic Zoology 15:97–111. [MTG, SNS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buck, R. C. & Hull, D. L. (1969) Reply to Gregg. Systematic Zoology 18:354–57. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunge, M. (1967) Scientific research. Vol. 1. New York: Springer-Verlag. [MB]Google Scholar
Bunge, M. (1977) The furniture of the world. Boston: Reidel. [MB]Google Scholar
Bunge, M. (1978) A model of evolution. Applied Mathematical Modelling 2:201–4. [MB]Google Scholar
Bunge, M. (1979a) Some topical problems in biophilosophy. Journal of Social and Biological Structures 2:155–72. [MB]Google Scholar
Bunge, M. (1979b) A world of systems. Boston: Reidel. [MB]Google Scholar
Campbell, D. T. (1974) Evolutionary epistemology. In: The philosophy of Karl Popper, ed. Schlipp, P. A., pp. 413–63. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court. [MTG]Google Scholar
Caplan, A. (1980a, in press) Back to class: A note on the ontology of species. Philosophy of Science. [ALC]Google Scholar
Caplan, A. (1980b) Have species become déclassé? In: PSA-1980, ed. Asquith, P. & Giere, R., pp. 71–82. East Lansing, Mich.: Philosophy of Science Association. [ALC]Google Scholar
Carré, M. H. (1961) Realists and nominalists. London: Oxford University Press. [HH]Google Scholar
Charnov, E. L. (1979) The genetical evolution of patterns of sexuality: Darwinian fitness. American Naturalist 113:465–80. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1980) Rules and representations. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:1–61. [MTG]Google Scholar
Cook, H. P. (1938) Aristotle: The categories. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Corning, P. A. (1971) The biological bases of behavior and some implications for political science. World Politics 23:321–70. [PAC]Google Scholar
Corning, P. A. (1974) Politics and the evolutionary process. In: Evolutionary biology, vol. 7, ed. Dobzhansky, Th., Hecht, M. K. & Steere, W. C.. New York: Plenum Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Corning, P. A. (1980a) A general theory of progressive evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, in review. [PAC]Google Scholar
Corning, P. A. (1980b) Natural selection and teleonomic selection. Journal of Social and Biological Structures, in review. [PAC]Google Scholar
Corning, P. A. (forthcoming) Politics and the evolutionary process. New York: Harper & Row. [PAC]Google Scholar
Croce, B. (1922) Aesthetic: As science of expression and general linguistic. 2d. ed.New York: Macmillan. [MTG]Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: John Murray. Baltimore: Penguin, 1968. [PAC, MTG]Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1872) The expression of the emotions in man and animals. London: John Murray. [MTG]Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1976) The selfish gene. London: Oxford University Press. [MTG, FJO, SNS]Google Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1978) Replicator selection and the extended phenotype. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 47:61–76. [DLH, MTG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deulsch, K. (1963) The nerves of government: Models of communication and control. New York: Free Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Dhoot, G. K. & Perry, S. V. (1979) Distribution of polymorphic forms of troponin components and tropomyosin in skeletal muscle. Nature 278:711–18. [AP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dobzhansky, Th. (1951a) Genetics and the origin of species. 3rd ed.New York: Columbia University Press. [MR]Google Scholar
Dobzhansky, Th. (1951b) Mendelian populations and their evolution. In: Genetics in the twentieth century, ed. Dunn, L. C., pp. 573–89. New York: Macmillan. [WLF]Google Scholar
Dobzhansky, Th. (1970) Genetics of the evolutionary process. New York: Columbia University Press. [MR]Google Scholar
Dobzhansky, Th. (1974) Introductory remarks. In: Studies in the philosophy of biology, ed. Ayala, F. J. & Dobzhansky, Th.. Berkeley: University of California Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Donaldson, M. (1978) Children's minds. London: Fontana. [AP]Google Scholar
Dray, W., ed. (1966) Philosophical analysis and history. New York: Harper & Row. [ALC]Google Scholar
Dunbar, M. (1960) The evolution of stability in marine ecosystems: Natural selection at the level of the ecosystem. American Naturalist 94:129–36. [MB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eddington, A. (1929) The nature of the physical world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [MR]Google Scholar
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1979) Human ethology: Concepts and implications for the sciences of man. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:1–57. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ekman, P., ed. (1973) Darwin and facial expression: A century of research in review. New York: Academic Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Eldredge, N. & Cracraft, J. (1980) Phylogenetic patterns and the evolutionary process: Method and theory in comparative biology. New York: Columbia University Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Eldredge, N. & Gould, S. J. (1972) Punctuated equilibria: An alternative to phyletic gradualism. In: Models in paleobiology, ed. Schopf, T. J. M., pp. 82–115. San Francisco: Freeman and Cooper. [DLH]Google Scholar
Evans, S. H. (1967) A brief statement of schema theory. Psychonomic Science 8:87–88. [MTC]Google Scholar
Feyerabend, P. K. (1962) Explanation, reduction and empiricism. In: Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science, vol. 3, ed. Feigl, H. and Maxwell, G., pp. 28–98. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. [AR]Google Scholar
Fink, W. L. (1979) Optimal classifications. Systematic Zoology 28:371–74. [WLF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1972) Some reflections on L. S. Vygotsky's Thought and language. Cognition 1:83–96. [MTG]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1980) Methodological solipsism considered as a research strategy in cognitive psychology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:63–109. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardiner, P., ed. (1974) The philosophy of history. London: Oxford University Press. [ALC]Google Scholar
Garner, W. R. (1978) Aspects of a stimulus: Features, dimensions, and configurations. In: Cognition and categorization, ed. Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B., pp. 99–133. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [MTG]Google Scholar
Garrettson, J. (1971) Cognitive style and classification. Journal of Genetic Psychology 119:79–87. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1966a) On psychologism in the logic of taxonomic controversies. Systematic Zoology 15:207–15. [MTG, EOW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1966b) On semantic pitfalls of biological adaptation. Philosophy of Science 33:147–53. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1969a) The principles and concepts of systematic biology. In: Systematic biology: Proceedings of an international conference, pp. 45–55. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. [MTG]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1969b) The triumph of the Darwinian method. Berkeley: University of California Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1971) The individual in the Darwinian revolution. New Literary History 3:113–34. [MTG]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1972) Models in phylogeny. In: Models in paleobiology, ed. Schopf, T. J. M., pp. 130–45. San Francisco: Freeman and Cooper. [MTG]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1973) Darwin and evolutionary psychology. Science 179:964–68. [MTG]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1974a) The economy of nature and the evolution of sex. Berkeley: University of California Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1974b) A radical solution to the species problem. Systematic Zoology 23:536–54. [MTG, RKJ, EOW]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1976) The nomenclature of correspondence: A new look at “homology” and “analogy.” In: Evolution, brain and behavior: Persistent problems, ed. Masterton, R. B., Hodos, W. & Jerison, H., pp. 129–42. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [MTG]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1978) The economy of the body. American Economic Review 68:233–37. [MTG]Google Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1980a) Biogeographical units: More on radical solutions. Systematic Zoology 29:80–85. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1980b) Evolutionary anatomy and language. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:20–21. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghiselin, M. T. (1980c) Natural kinds and literary accomplishments. Michigan Quarterly Review 19:73–88. [MTG, RKJ, EOW]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1966) The senses considered as perceptual systems. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [MTG, ESR]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1967) New reasons for realism. Synthese 17:162–72. [ESR]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1977) The theory of affordances. In: Perceiving, acting and knowing, ed. Shaw, R. & Bransford, J., pp. 67–82. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [RKJ]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. [RKJ]Google Scholar
Gibson, J. J. & Gibson, E. J. (1955) Perceptual learning: Differentiation or enrichment? Psychological Review 62:32–41. [ESR]Google Scholar
Gleason, H. A. (1926) The individualistic concept of the plant association. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 53:1–20. [WLF, MTG]Google Scholar
Goudge, T. A. (1961) The ascent of life. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [AR]Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. & Eldredge, N. (1977) Punctuated equilibria: The tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered. Paleobiology 3:115–51. [ALC]Google Scholar
Gregg, J. R. (1954) The language of taxonomy. New York: Columbia University Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Gregg, J. R. (1968) Buck and Hull: A critical rejoinder. Systematic Zoology 17:342–44. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, R. L. (1980) Perceptions as hypotheses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (London) B 290:181–97. [AP]Google Scholar
Gruber, H. E. (1978) Darwin's “tree of nature” and other images of wide scope. In: On aesthetics in science, ed. Wechsler, J., pp. 121–40. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. [SNS]Google Scholar
Harris, M. (1968) The rise of an anthropological theory. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell. [SNS]Google Scholar
Haywood, R. C. & Bourne, L. E. (1965) Attribute- and rule-learning aspects of conceptual behavior. Psychological Review 72:175–95. [MTG]Google Scholar
Heise, H. & Starr, M. P. (1968) Nomenifers: Are they christened or classified? Systematic Zoology 17:458–67. [HH]Google Scholar
Hempel, C. G. (1965) Aspects of scientific explanation and other essays in the philosophy of science. New York: Free Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Hennig, W. (1966) Phylogenetic systematics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. [WLF, EOW]Google Scholar
Holt, E. B. (1915) The Freudian wish. New York: H. Holt. [ESR]Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1974) Philosophy of biological science. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. [MB]Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1975) Central subjects and historical narratives. History and Theory 14:253–74. [MTG]Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1976a) Are species really individuals? Systematic Zoology 25:174–91. [MTG, SNS]Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1976b) The ontological status of biological species. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 32:347–58. [MTG]Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1978) A matter of individuality. Philosophy of Science 45:335–60. [MTG]Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1980a) Individuality and selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11:311–32. [DLH]Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. (1980b) Sociobiology: Another new synthesis. In: Sociobiology: Beyond nature/nurture, ed. Barlow, G. W. & Silverberg, J., pp. 77–96. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Hull, D. L. & Snyder, D. P. (1969) Contemporary logic and evolutionary taxonomy: A reply to Gregg. Systematic Zoology 18:347–54. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huxley, T. H. (1854) Upon animal individuality. Proceedings of the Royal Institution 1:184–89. [MTG, SNS]Google Scholar
Kay, P. (1971) Taxonomy and semantic contrast. Language 47:866–87. [MTG]Google Scholar
Kitts, D. B. & Kitts, D. J. (1979) Biological species as natural kinds. Philosophy of Science 46:613–22. [MTG]Google Scholar
Lee, L. C.; Kagan, J. & Rabson, A. (1963) Influence of a preference for analytic categorization upon concept acquisition. Child Development 34:433–42. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewontin, R. C. (1970) The units of selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1:1–18. [MTG]Google Scholar
Lewontin, R. C. (1978) Adaptation. Scientific American 239:156–59. [MTG]Google Scholar
Luria, A. R. (1976) Cognitive development. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [RKJ]Google Scholar
MacLean, C. M. (1973) A triune concept of the brain and behavior. In: The Clarence M. Hincks memorial lectures, 1969, ed. Boog, T. J. & Campbell, D., pp. 4–66. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [WLF]Google Scholar
Mandelbaum, M. (1977) The anatomy of historical knowledge. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. [ALC]Google Scholar
Markman, E. M. (1973) Facilitation of part-whole comparisons by use of the collective noun “family.” Child Development 44:837–40. [MTG, RKJ]Google Scholar
Markman, E. M. (1979) Classes and collections: Conceptual organization and numerical abilities. Cognitive Psychology 11:395–411. [MTG, RKJ]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markman, E. M. & Seibert, J. (1976) Classes and collections: Internal organization and resulting holistic properties. Cognitive Psychology 8:561–77. [MTC, FCK]Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1940) Speciation phenomena in birds. American Naturalist 74:249–78. [MTG]Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1954) Darwin and evolutionary theory in biology. In: Evolution and anthropology: A centennial appraisal, ed. Meggers, B. J., pp. 1–10. Washington, D.C.: The Anthropological Society of Washington. [MTG]Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1974) Teleological and teleonomic: A new analysis. In: Boston studies in the philosophy of science, vol. 14, ed. Cohen, R. S. & Wartofsky, M. W.. Boston: Reidel. [PAC]Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1976) Is the species a class or an individual? Systematic Zoology 25:192. [MTG]Google Scholar
Mayr, E. (1978) Evolution. Scientific American 239:46–55. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayr, E. & Provine, W. V. (1980) The evolutionary synthesis: Perspectives on the unifications of biology. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Mill, J. S. (1843) A system of logic, ratiocinative and inductive. London: Longmans. [MTC]Google Scholar
Miller, J. C. (1978) Living systems. New York: McGraw-Hill. [PAC]Google Scholar
Monod, J. (1971) Chance and necessity. New York: Knopf. [PAC]Google Scholar
Munitz, M. K., ed. (1971) Identity and individuation. New York: New York University Press. [HH]Google Scholar
Nagel, E. (1960) Determinism in history. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 20:291–317. [ALC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, K. (1974) Concept, word and sentence: Interrelations in acquisition and development. Psychological Review 81:267–85. [MTG]Google Scholar
Neumann, P. G. (1974) An attribute frequency model for the abstraction of prototypes. Memory and Cognition 2:241–48. [MTC]Google Scholar
Ohno, S. (1970) Evolution by gene duplication. London: Allen & Unwin; Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag. [AP]Google Scholar
O'Keefe, J. & Nadel, L. (1979) Précis of O'Keefe & Nadel's The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2:487–533. [MTG]Google Scholar
Patterson, C. (1977) The contribution of paleontology to teleostean phylogeny. In: Major patterns in vertebrate evolution, ed. Hecht, M. K., Goody, P. C. & Hecht, B. M., pp. 579–643. New York: Plenum Press. [WLF]Google Scholar
Patterson, C. (1978) Verifiability in systematics. Systematic Zoology 28:218–22. [WLF, MTC]Google Scholar
Peirce, C. S. (1934) Collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, ed. Hartshorne, C. & Weiss, P.. Vol. 6. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [HH]Google Scholar
Pittendrigh, C. (1958) Adaptation, natural selection and behavior. In: Behavior and evolution, ed. Roe, A. & Simpson, G. G.. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Platnick, N. I. (1977) Review of C. N. Slobodchikoff, Concepts of species. Systematic Zoology 26:96–98. [MTG]Google Scholar
Platnick, N. I. & Gaffney, E. S. (1978) Evolutionary biology: A Popperian perspective. Systematic Zoology 27:137–41. [ALC]Google Scholar
Popper, K. (1961) The poverty of historicism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. [ALC]Google Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Keele, S. W. (1968) On the genesis of abstract ideas. Journal of Experimental Psychology 77:353–63. [MTC]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pratt, V. (1978) The philosophy of the social sciences. London: Methuen. [ALC]Google Scholar
Reed, E. S. (1979) The role of symmetry in Ghiselin's “radical solution to the species problem.” Systematic Zoology 27:159–88. [MTG]Google Scholar
Reed, E. S. (1980) The corporeal ideas hypothesis and the origin of scientific psychology. Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University. [ESR]Google Scholar
Reed, E. S. & Jones, R. K. (1977) Towards a definition of living systems: A theory of ecological support for behavior. Acta Biotheoretica 26:153–63. [MTG]Google Scholar
Reed, E. S. & Jones, R. K. (1978) Gibson's theory of perception: A case of hasty epistemologizing? Philosophy of Science 45:519–30. [ESR]Google Scholar
Reed, E. S. & Jones, R. K. (in press) Is perception blind? Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior. [ESR]Google Scholar
Reed, S. K. (1972) Pattern recognition and categorization. Cognitive Psychology 3:382–407. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, T. (1785) Essays on the intellectual powers of man. Reprint ed. 1969. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. [MTC]Google Scholar
Rensch, B. (1947) Evolution above the species level. New York: Columbia University Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Roederer, J. G. (1979) Human brain functions and the foundations of science. Endeavour N.S. 3:99–103. [AP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosch, E. (1975) Cognitive representations of semantic categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology, General 104:192–233. [MTG]Google Scholar
Rosch, E. (1978) Principles of categorization. In: Cognition and categorization, ed. Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B., pp. 247–48. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [MTG, ESR]Google Scholar
Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B., eds. (1978) Cognition and categorization. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [MTC]Google Scholar
Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B., eds. (1978) Introduction. Cognition and categorization, ed. Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B.. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [ESR]Google Scholar
Rosch, E. & Mervis, C. B. (1975) Family resemblances: Studies in the internal structure of categories. Cognitive Psychology 7:573–605. [MTG, FCK]Google Scholar
Rosch, E.; Mervis, C. B.; Gray, W. D.; Johnson, D. M. & Boyes-Braem, P. (1976) Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology 8:382–439. [MTG, RKJ]Google Scholar
Rosenberg, A. (1978) The supervenience of biological concepts. Philosophy of Science 45:368–87. [AR]Google Scholar
Rosenberg, A. (1980) Sociobiology and the preemption of social science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. [MTG, AR]Google Scholar
Rosenberg, A. (1981) Species notions and the theoretical hierarchy of biology. Nature and System. (Forthcoming) [AR]Google Scholar
Ruse, M. (1969) Definitions of species in biology. British Journal of the Philosophy of Science 20:97–119. [MR]Google Scholar
Ruse, M. (1973) The philosophy of biology. London: Hutchinson. [MR]Google Scholar
Ruse, M. (1979) Sociobiology: Sense or nonsense? Dordrecht:Reidel. [MR]Google Scholar
Ruse, M. (1981) Is science sexist? And other problems in the biomedical sciences. Dordrecht: Reidel. [MR]Google Scholar
Russell, B. (1914) Our knowledge of the external world. London: Open Court. [MTG]Google Scholar
Salthe, S. N. (1975) Problems of macroevolution (molecular evolution, phenotype definition, and canalization) as seen from a hierarchical viewpoint. American Zoologist 15:295–314. [SNS]Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. P., ed. (1978) Naming, necessity, and natural kinds. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. [MTG, SPS]Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. P., ed. (1979) Natural kind terms. Cognition 7:301–15. [MTG]Google Scholar
Simpson, G. G. (1958) Behavior and evolution. In: Behavior and evolution, ed. Roe, A. & Simpson, G. G.. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Simpson, G. G. (1964) This view of life. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. [MTG, AR]Google Scholar
Simpson, G. G. (1967) The meaning of evolution. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Sokal, R. R. & Sneath, P. H. A. (1963) Principles of numerical taxonomy. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co. [MR]Google Scholar
Spencer, H. (1862) First principles. London: Watts & Co. [PAC]Google Scholar
Spencer, H. (1857) Progress: Its law and cause. In: Essays: Scientific, political and speculative. Reprint ed. 1892, New York: Appleton. [PAC]Google Scholar
Stanley, S. M. (1979) Macroevolution. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman & Co. [ALC, DLH]Google Scholar
Stebbins, G. L. (1969) The basis of progressive evolution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Steinbruner, J. D. (1974) The cybernetic theory of decision. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [PAC]Google Scholar
Toulmin, S. (1972) Human understanding. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [MTG]Google Scholar
Tversky, A. (1977) Features of similarity. Psychological Review 84:327–352. [ESR]Google Scholar
Tversky, A. & Gati, I. (1978) Studies of similarity. In: Cognition and categorization, ed. Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B., pp. 79–98. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [MTG]Google Scholar
Van Valen, L. (1976) Individualistic classes. Philosophy of Science 43:539–41. [MTG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wade, N. (1979) Supreme Court to say if life is patentable. Science 206:664. [MR]Google Scholar
Wade, N. (1980a) Supreme Court hears argument on patenting life forms. Science 208:31–32. [MR]Google Scholar
Wade, N. (1980b) Court says lab-made life can be patented. Science 208:1445. [MR]Google Scholar
Weismann, A. (1904) The evolution theory (Thomson, T. A. & Thomson, M. R., trans.). London: Edward Arnold. [PAC]Google Scholar
Whewell, W. (1840) Philosophy of the inductive sciences. London: Parker. [MR]Google Scholar
Whyte, L. L. (1965) Internal factors in evolution. New York: George Braziller. [MTG]Google Scholar
Wiley, E. O. (1978) The evolutionary species concept reconsidered. Systematic Zoology 27:17–26. [MTG]Google Scholar
Wiley, E. O. (1980) Is the evolutionary species fiction? - A consideration of classes, individuals and historical entities. Systematic Zoology 29:76–80. [WLF, MTG, EOW]Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966) Adaptation and natural selection: A critique of some current evolutionary thought. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [MTG, FJO, SNS]Google Scholar
Williams, M. B. (1971) Deducing the consequences of evolution: A mathematical model. Journal of Theoretical Biology 28:343–85. [AR]Google Scholar
Williams, M. B. (1973) The logical status of the theory of natural selection and other evolutionary controversies. In: Methodological unity of science, ed. Bunge, M., pp. 84–102. Dordecht: Reidel. [AP]Google Scholar
Wittgenstein, L. (1953) Philosophical investigations. New York: Macmillan. [MTG, AR]Google Scholar
Wright, S. (1934) The method of path coefficients. Annals of Mathematical Statistics 5:161–215. [PAC]Google Scholar
Ziff, P. (1977) About proper names. Mind 76:319–32. [MTG]Google Scholar