Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-b95js Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-30T06:13:51.191Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Emotional responses to music: The need to consider underlying mechanisms

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 October 2008

Patrik N. Juslin  and
Daniel Västfjäll
Patrik N. Juslin
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, SE-75142 Uppsala, [email protected]://www.psyk.uu.se/hemsidor/musicpsy2/
Daniel Västfjäll
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Göteborg University, SE-40530 Göteborg, [email protected]://www.psy.gu.se/Personal/DaneilV.htm
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Research indicates that people value music primarily because of the emotions it evokes. Yet, the notion of musical emotions remains controversial, and researchers have so far been unable to offer a satisfactory account of such emotions. We argue that the study of musical emotions has suffered from a neglect of underlying mechanisms. Specifically, researchers have studied musical emotions without regard to how they were evoked, or have assumed that the emotions must be based on the “default” mechanism for emotion induction, a cognitive appraisal. Here, we present a novel theoretical framework featuring six additional mechanisms through which music listening may induce emotions: (1) brain stem reflexes, (2) evaluative conditioning, (3) emotional contagion, (4) visual imagery, (5) episodic memory, and (6) musical expectancy. We propose that these mechanisms differ regarding such characteristics as their information focus, ontogenetic development, key brain regions, cultural impact, induction speed, degree of volitional influence, modularity, and dependence on musical structure. By synthesizing theory and findings from different domains, we are able to provide the first set of hypotheses that can help researchers to distinguish among the mechanisms. We show that failure to control for the underlying mechanism may lead to inconsistent or non-interpretable findings. Thus, we argue that the new framework may guide future research and help to resolve previous disagreements in the field. We conclude that music evokes emotions through mechanisms that are not unique to music, and that the study of musical emotions could benefit the emotion field as a whole by providing novel paradigms for emotion induction.

Keywords

affectarousalbrainemotioninductionmusicmechanismmemorytheory
Type
Main Articles
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 31 , Issue 5 , October 2008 , pp. 559 - 575
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adolphs, R., Damasio, H. & Tranel, D. (2002) Neural systems for recognition of emotional prosody: A 3-D lesion study. Emotion 2:23–51.Google Scholar
Aiken, H. D. (1950) The aesthetic relevance of belief. Journal of Aesthetics 9:301–15.Google Scholar
Balleine, B. W. & Killcross, S. (2006) Parallel incentive processing: An integrated view of amygdala function. Trends in Neurosciences 5:272–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Band, J. P., Quilter, S. M. & Miller, G. M. (2001–2002) The influence of selected music and inductions on mental imagery: Implications for practitioners of Guided Imagery and Music. Journal of the Association for Music and Imagery 8:13–33.Google Scholar
Bartlett, D. L. (1996) Physiological reactions to music and acoustic stimuli. In: Handbook of music psychology, 2nd edition, ed. Hodges, D. A., pp. 343–85. IMR Press.Google Scholar
Bauer Alfredson, B., Risberg, J., Hagberg, B., & Gustafson, L. (2004) Right temporal lobe activation when listening to emotionally significant music. Applied Neuropsychology 11:161–66.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, H. (1992) Remembrance of things past: Music, autobiographical memory, and emotion. Advances in Consumer Research 19:613–20.Google Scholar
Becker, J. (2001) Anthropological perspectives on music and emotion. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 135–60. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Becker, J. (2004) Deep listeners: Music, emotion, and trancing. Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Beedie, C. J., Terry, P. C. & Lane, A. M. (2005) Distinctions between emotion and mood. Cognition and Emotion 19:847–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behne, K. E. (1997) The development of “Musikerleben” in adolescence: How and why young people listen to music. In: Perception and cognition of music, ed. Deliége, I. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 143–59. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Berlyne, D. E. (1971) Aesthetics and psychobiology. Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Blair, M. E. & Shimp, T. A. (1992) Consequences of an unpleasant experience with music: A second-order negative conditioning perspective. Journal of Advertising 21:35–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blood, A. J. & Zatorre, R. J. (2001) Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98(20):11818–23.Google Scholar
Blood, A. J., Zatorre, R. J., Bermudez, P. & Evans, A. C. (1999) Emotional responses to pleasant and unpleasant music correlate with activity in paralimbic brain regions. Nature Neuroscience 2(4):382–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonde, L. O. (2006) Music as metaphor and analogy: A literature essay. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 16:57–78.Google Scholar
Bonny, H. L. & Savary, L. M. (1973) Music and your mind. Station Hill.Google Scholar
Bouhuys, A. L., Bloem, G. M. & Groothuis, T. G. (1995) Induction of depressed and elated mood by music influences the perception of facial emotional expressions in healthy subjects. Journal of Affective Disorders 33:215–26.Google Scholar
Bradley, M. M. & Lang, P. J. (2000) Affective reactions to acoustic stimuli. Psychophysiology 37:204–15.Google Scholar
Bradley, M. M. & Lang, P. J. (2007) The international affective picture system (IAPS) in the study of emotion and attention. In: Handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment, ed. Coan, J. A. & Allen, J. J. B., pp. 29–46. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandao, M. L., Melo, L. L. & Cardoso, S. H. (1993) Mechanisms of defense in the inferior colliculus. Behavioral Brain Research 58:49–55.Google Scholar
Brown, C. M., Hagoort, P. & Kutas, M. (2000) Postlexical integration processes in language comprehension: Evidence from brain-imaging research. In: The new cognitive neurosciences, 2nd edition, ed. Gazzaniga, M. S., pp. 881–95. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Brown, S., Martinez, M. J. & Parsons, L. M. (2004) Passive music listening spontaneously engages limbic and paralimbic systems. NeuroReport 15:2033–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruner, G. C. (1990) Music, mood and marketing. Journal of Marketing 54:94–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brunswik, E. (1956) Perception and the representative design of psychological experiments. University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruscia, K. E. & Grocke, D. E., eds. (2002) Guided Imagery and Music: The Bonny Method and beyond. Barcelona Publishers.Google Scholar
Budd, M. (1985) Music and the emotions: The philosophical theories. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunt, L. (2000) Transformational processes in guided imagery and music. Journal of the Association for Music and Imagery 7:44–69.Google Scholar
Bunt, L. & Hoskyns, S., eds. (2002) The handbook of music therapy. Routledge.Google Scholar
Burt, J. L., Bartolome, D. S., Burdette, D. W. & Comstock, J. R. (1995) A psychophysiological evaluation of the perceived urgency of auditory warning signals. Ergonomics 38:2327–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlsen, J. C. (1981) Some factors which influence melodic expectancy. Psychomusicology 1:12–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carver, C. S. & Scheier, M. F. (1998) On the self-regulation of behavior. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, D. M. (1983) On the induction of depressed mood in the laboratory: Evaluation and comparison of the Velten and musical procedures. Advances in Behavior Research and Therapy 5:27–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, D. M. & Teasdale, J. D. (1985) Constraints on the effect of mood on memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48:1595–608.Google Scholar
Clynes, M. (1977) Sentics: The touch of emotions. Doubleday.Google Scholar
Cohen, A. J. (2001) Music as a source of emotion in film. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 249–72. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Coltheart, M. (1999) Modularity and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3:115–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conway, M. A. & Holmes, E. (2005) Autobiographical memory and the working self. In: Cognitive psychology, ed. Braisby, N. & Gellatly, A., pp. 507–43. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Conway, M. A. & Rubin, D. C. (1993) The structure of autobiographical memory. In: Theories of memory, ed. Collins, A. E., Gathercole, S. E., Conway, M. A. & Morris, E. M., pp. 103–37. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cooke, D. (1959) The language of music. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cunningham, J. G. & Sterling, R. S. (1988) Developmental changes in the understanding of affective meaning in music. Motivation and Emotion 12:399–413.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1872) The expression of the emotions in man and animals. John Murray.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davidson, R. J., Scherer, K. R. & Goldsmith, H. H., eds. (2003) Handbook of affective sciences. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Davies, J. B. (1978) The psychology of music. Hutchinson.Google Scholar
Davies, S. (2001) Philosophical perspectives on music's expressiveness. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 23–44. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Decety, J. & Jeannerod, M. (1995) Mentally simulated movements in virtual reality: Does Fitt's law hold in motor imagery? Behavioral Brain Research 72:127–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Gelder, B., Snyder, J., Greve, D., Gerard, G., & Hadjikhani, N. (2004) Fear fosters flight: A mechanism for fear contagion when perceiving emotion expressed by a whole body. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101:16701–706.Google Scholar
De Houwer, J., Baeyens, F., & Field, A. P. (2005) Associative learning of likes and dislikes: Some current controversies and possible ways forward. Cognition and Emotion 19:161–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Houwer, J., Thomas, S., & Baeyens, F. (2001) Associative learning of likes and dislikes: A review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning. Psychological Bulletin 127:853–69.Google Scholar
DeNora, T. (2000) Music in everyday life. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeNora, T. (2001) Aesthetic agency and musical practice: New directions in the sociology of music and emotion. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 161–80. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dimberg, U. & Thunberg, M. (1998) Rapid facial reactions to emotional facial expressions. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 39:39–45.Google Scholar
Dimberg, U., Thunberg, M. & Elmehed, K. (2000) Unconscious facial reactions to emotional facial expressions. Psychological Science 11:86–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dimberg, U., Thunberg, M. & Grunedal, S. (2002) Facial reactions to emotional stimuli: Automatically controlled emotional responses. Cognition & Emotion 16:449–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
di Pellegrino, G., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (1992) Understanding motor events: A neurophysiological study. Experimental Brain Research 91:176–80.Google Scholar
Dowling, W. J. & Harwood, D. L. (1986) Music cognition. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Duffy, E. (1941) An explanation of “emotional” phenomena without the use of the concept “emotion.” Journal of General Psychology 25:283–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989) Human ethology. Aldine.Google Scholar
Eich, E., Ng, J. T. W., Macaulay, D., Percy, A. D. & Grebneva, I. (2007) Combining music with thought to change mood. In: Handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment, ed. Coan, J. A. & Allen, J. J. B., pp. 124–36. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ekman, P. (1992a) An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and Emotion 6:169–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellsworth, P. C. (1994) Levels of thought and levels of emotion. In: The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions, ed. Ekman, P. & Davidson, R. J., pp. 192–96. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fahrenberg, J. & Myrtek, M., eds. (1996) Ambulatory assessment: Computer-assisted psychological and psychophysiological methods in monitoring and field studies. Hogrefe.Google Scholar
Fanselow, M. S. & Poulus, A. M. (2005) The neuroscience of mammalian associative learning. Annual Review of Psychology 56:207–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farah, M. J. (2000) The neural bases of mental imagery. In: The new cognitive neurosciences, 2nd edition, ed. Gazzaniga, M. S., pp. 965–74. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Feijoo, J. (1981) Le foetus, Pierre et le loup. In: L'Aube des sens, cahiers du nouveau-né, ed. Herbinet, E. & Busnel, M.-C., pp. 192–209. Stock.Google Scholar
Field, A. P. & Moore, A. C. (2005) Dissociating the effects of attention and contingency awareness on evaluative conditioning effects in the visual paradigm. Cognition and Emotion 19:217–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, T. M., Woodson, R., Greenberg, R. & Cohen, C. (1982) Discrimination and imitation of facial expressions by neonates. Science 218:179–81.Google Scholar
Fivush, R. & Sales, J. M. (2004) Children's memories of emotional events. In: Memory and emotion, ed. Reisberg, D. & Hertel, P., pp. 242–71. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fletcher, P. C., Shallice, T., Frith, C. D., Frackowiac, R. S. & Dolan, R. J. (1998) The functional roles of prefrontal cortex in episodic memory: II. Retrieval. Brain 121:1249–56.Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1983) The modularity of the mind. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foss, J. A., Ison, J. R., Torre, J. P. & Wansack, S. (1989) The acoustic startle response and disruption of aiming: I. Effect of stimulus repetition, intensity, and intensity changes. Human Factors 31:307–18.Google Scholar
Frey, W. H. (1985) Crying: The mystery of tears. Winston Press.Google Scholar
Fried, R. & Berkowitz, L. (1979) Music that charms … and can influence helpfulness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 9:199–208.Google Scholar
Frijda, N. H. (1999) Emotions and hedonic experience. In: Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology, ed. Kahneman, D., Diener, E. & Schwarz, N., pp. 190–210. Sage.Google Scholar
Frijda, N. H. & Zeelenberg, M. (2001) Appraisal: What is the dependent? In: Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research, ed. Scherer, K. R., Schorr, A. & Johnstone, T., pp. 141–55. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gabriel, C. & Crickmore, L. (1977) Emotion and music. Psychology of Music 5:28–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gabrielsson, A. (2001) Emotions in strong experiences with music. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 431–49. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gabrielsson, A. (2002) Emotion perceived and emotion felt: Same or different? Musicae Scientiae (Special Issue 2001–2002):123–47.Google Scholar
Gabrielsson, A. & Juslin, P. N. (2003) Emotional expression in music. In: Handbook of affective sciences, ed. Davidson, R. J., Scherer, K. R. & Goldsmith, H. H., pp. 503–34. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ganis, G., Thompson, W. L., Mast, F. & Kosslyn, S. M. (2004) The brain's mind images: The cognitive neuroscience of mental imagery. In: The cognitive neurosciences, 3rd edition, ed. Gazzaniga, M. S., pp. 931–41. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Gärdenfors, P. (2003) How Homo became sapiens: On the evolution of thinking. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gorn, G., Pham, M. T. & Sin, L. Y. (2001) When arousal influences ad evaluation and valence does not (and vice versa). Journal of Consumer Psychology 11:43–55.Google Scholar
Gosselin, N., Samson, S., Adolphs, R., Noulhiane, M., Roy, M., Hasboun, D., Baulac, M. & Peretz, I. (2006) Emotional responses to unpleasant music correlates with damage to the parahippocampal cortex. Brain 129(10):2585–92.Google Scholar
Goydke, K. N., Altenmüller, E., Möller, J. & Münte, T. F. (2004) Changes in emotional tone and instrumental timbre are reflected by the mismatch negativity. Cognitive Brain Research 21:351–59.Google Scholar
Gregory, A. H. (1997) The roles of music in society: The ethnomusicological perspective. In: The social psychology of music, ed. Hargreaves, D. J. & North, A. C., pp. 123–40. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, P. E. (2004) Towards a “Machiavellian” theory of emotional appraisal. In: Emotion, evolution, and rationality, ed. Evans, D. & Cruse, P., pp. 89–105. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gurney, E. (1880) The power of sound. Smith, Elder.Google Scholar
Halpern, D., Blake, R. & Hillenbrand, J. (1986) Psychoacoustics of a chilling sound. Perception and Psychophysics 39:77–80.Google Scholar
Hammerl, M. & Fulcher, E. P. (2005) Reactance in affective evaluative learning: Outside of conscious control? Cognition and Emotion 19:197–216.Google Scholar
Hanslick, E. (1854/1986) On the musically beautiful, trans. Payzant, G.Hackett. (Original work published in 1854).Google Scholar
Harré, R. (1997) Emotion in music. In: Emotion and the arts, ed. Hjort, M. & Laver, S., pp. 110–18. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrer, G. & Harrer, H. (1977) Music, emotion, and autonomic function. In: Music and the brain: Studies in the neurology of music, ed. Critchley, M. & Henson, R. A., pp. 202–16. William Heinemann Medical Books.Google Scholar
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T. & Rapson, R. L. (1994) Emotional contagion. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hellmuth Margulis, E. (2005) A model of melodic expectation. Music Perception 22:663–713.Google Scholar
Hepper, P. G. (1996) Fetal memory: Does it exist? What does it do? Acta Paediatrica: Supplement 416:16–20.Google Scholar
Holbrook, M. B. & Schindler, R. M. (1989) Some exploratory findings on the development of musical tastes. Journal of Consumer Research 16:119–24.Google Scholar
Huron, D. (2006) Sweet anticipation: Music and the psychology of expectation. MIT.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E. (1993) Four systems for emotion activation: Cognitive and noncognitive processes. Psychological Review 100:68–90.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E. (2007) Basic emotions, natural kinds, emotion schemas, and a new paradigm. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2:260–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janata, P. (1995) ERP measures assay the degree of expectancy violation in harmonic contexts in music. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 7:153–64.Google Scholar
Jentschke, S., Koelsch, S. & Friederici, A. D. (2005) Investigating the relationship of music and language in children: Influences of musical training and language impairment. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1060:231–42.Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. & Oatley, K. (1992) Basic emotions, rationality, and folk theory. Cognition and Emotion 6:201–23.Google Scholar
Johnsrude, I. S., Owen, A. M., White, N. M., Zhao, W. V. & Bohbot, V. (2000) Impaired preference conditioning after anterior temporal lobe resection in humans. Journal of Neuroscience 20:2649–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joseph, R. (2000) Neuropsychiatry, neuropsychology, clinical neuroscience, 2nd edition, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Juslin, P. N. (2001) Communicating emotion in music performance: A review and a theoretical framework. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 309–37. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Juslin, P. N. & Laukka, P. (2003) Communication of emotions in vocal expression and music performance: Different channels, same code? Psychological Bulletin 129:770–814.Google Scholar
Juslin, P. N. & Laukka, P. (2004) Expression, perception, and induction of musical emotions: A review and a questionnaire study of everyday listening. Journal of New Music Research 33:217–38.Google Scholar
Juslin, P. N., Laukka, P., Liljeström, S., Västfjäll, D. & Lundqvist, L.-O. (submitted a) A representative survey study of emotional reactions to music.Google Scholar
Juslin, P. N. & Scherer, K. R. (2005) Vocal expression of affect. In: The new handbook of methods in nonverbal behavior research, ed. Harrigan, J. A., Rosenthal, R. & Scherer, K. R., pp. 65–135. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., eds. (2001) Music and emotion: Theory and research. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kallinen, K. & Ravaja, N. (2006) Emotion perceived and emotion felt: Same and different. Musicae Scientiae 10:191–213.Google Scholar
Kenealy, P. (1988) Validation of a music mood induction procedure: Some preliminary findings. Cognition and Emotion 2:41–48.Google Scholar
Khalfa, S., Dalla Bella, S., Roy, M., Peretz, I., & Lupien, S. J. (2003) Effects of relaxing music on salivary cortisol level after psychological stress. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 999:374–76.Google Scholar
Kinomura, S., Larsson, J., Gulyás, B. & Roland, P. E. (1996) Activation by attention of the human reticular formation and thalamic intralaminar nuclei. Science 271:512–15.Google Scholar
Kivy, P. (1980) The corded shell: Reflections on musical expression. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kivy, P. (1990) Music alone: Philosophical reflections on the purely musical experience. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Koelsch, S. (2005) Investigating emotion with music: Neuroscientific approaches. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1060:412–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koelsch, S., Fritz, T., von Cramon, D. Y., Müller, K. & Friederici, A. D. (2006) Investigating emotion with music: An fMRI study. Human Brain Mapping 27:239–50.Google Scholar
Koelsch, S., Gunter, T. C., Friederici, A. D. & Schröger, E. S. (2000) Brain indices of music processing: “Nonmusicians” are musical. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12:520–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koelsch, S., Gunter, T. C., van Cramon, D. Y., Zyset, S., Lohmann, G. & Friederici, A. D. (2002a) Bach speaks: A cortical “language-network” serves the processing of music. NeuroImage 17:956–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koelsch, S., Schroger, E. & Gunter, T. C. (2002b) Music matters: Preattentive musicality of the human brain. Psychophysiology 39:38–48.Google Scholar
Koelsch, S. & Siebel, W. A. (2005) Towards a neural basis of music perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9:578–84.Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. (1983) Perception and representation. Annual Review of Psychology 34:129–66.Google Scholar
Konečni, V. J. (2003) Review of Music and emotion: Theory and research, edited by Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A.. Music Perception 20:332–41.Google Scholar
Kosslyn, S. M. (1980) Image and mind. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kosslyn, S. M. (1994) Image and brain: The resolution of the imagery debate. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosslyn, S. M., Margolis, J. A., Barrett, A. M., Goldknopf, E. J. & Daly, P. F. (1990) Age differences in imagery abilities. Child Development 61:995–1010.Google Scholar
Krosnick, J. A., Betz, A. L., Jussim, L. J. & Lynn, A. R. (1992) Subliminal conditioning of attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18:152–62.Google Scholar
Krumhansl, C. L. (1997) An exploratory study of musical emotions and psychophysiology. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 51:336–52.Google Scholar
Krumhansl, C. L. & Keil, F. C. (1982) Acquisition of the hierarchy of tonal functions in music. Memory and Cognition 10:243–51.Google Scholar
Krumhansl, C. L., Louhivuori, J., Toiviainen, P., Järvinen, T. & Eerola, T. (1999) Melodic expectation in Finnish folk hymns: Convergence of statistical, behavioral, and computational approaches. Music Perception 17:151–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhl, P. K. (2000) Language, mind, and brain: Experience alters perception. In: The new cognitive neurosciences, 2nd edition, ed. Gazzaniga, M. S., pp. 99–115. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Laiho, S. (2004) The psychological functions of music in adolescence. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 13:47–63.Google Scholar
Laird, J. D. & Strout, S. (2007) Emotional behaviors as emotional stimuli. In: Handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment, ed. Coan, J. A. & Allen, J. J. B., pp. 54–64. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lakin, J. L., Jefferis, V. E., Cheng, C. M. & Chartrand, T. L. (2003) The chameleon effect as social glue: Evidence for the evolutionary significance of nonconscious mimicry. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27:145–62.Google Scholar
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980) Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lane, R. D. (2000) Neural correlates of conscious emotional experience. In: Cognitive neuroscience of emotion, ed. Lane, R. D. & Nadel, L., pp. 345–70. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lang, P. J. (1979) A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery. Psychophysiology 16:495–512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langer, S. K. (1957) Philosophy in a new key. New American Library.Google Scholar
Larsen, J. T., McGraw, A. P. & Cacioppo, J. T. (2001) Can people feel happy and sad at the same time? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81:684–96.Google Scholar
Larsen, J. T., To, Y. M. & Fireman, G. (2007) Children's understanding and experience of mixed emotions. Psychological Science 18:186–91.Google Scholar
Larson, R. (1995) Secrets in the bedroom: Adolescents' private use of media. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 24:535–50.Google Scholar
Lavond, D. G. & Steinmetz, J. E. (2003) Handbook of classical conditioning. Kluwer Academic.Google Scholar
Lecanuet, J.-P. (1996) Prenatal auditory experience. In: Musical beginnings: Origins and development of musical competence, ed. Deliège, I. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 3–34. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
LeDoux, J. E. (2002) Emotion: Clues from the brain. In: Foundations in social neuroscience, ed. Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Adolphs, R., Carter, C. S., Davidson, R. J., McClintock, M. K., McEwen, B. S., Meaney, M. J., Schacter, D. L., Sternberg, E. M., Suomi, S. S. & Taylor, S. E., pp. 389–410. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Lerdahl, F. & Jackendoff, R. (1983) A generative theory of tonal music. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Lippman, E. A. (1953) Symbolism in music. Musical Quarterly 39:554–75.Google Scholar
Lipps, T. (1903) Einfühling, innere Nachahmung und Organempfindung. Archiv für die Gesamte Psychologie 1:465–519.Google Scholar
Lipscomb, S. D. & Hodges, D. A. (1996) Hearing and music perception. In: Handbook of music psychology, 2nd edition, ed. Hodges, D. A., pp. 83–132. IMR Press.Google Scholar
Lovibond, P. F. & Shanks, D. R. (2002) The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 28:3–26.Google Scholar
Lundqvist, L.-O., Carlsson, F., Hilmersson, P. & Juslin, P. N. (in press) Emotional responses to music: Experience, expression, and physiology. Psychology of Music.Google Scholar
Lyman, B. & Waters, J. C. (1989) Patterns of imagery in various emotions. Journal of Mental Imagery 13:63–74.Google Scholar
Maess, B., Koelsch, S., Gunter, T. C. & Friederici, A. D. (2001) Musical syntax is processed in Broca's area: An MEG study. Nature Neuroscience 4:540–45.Google Scholar
Marks, D. F. (1973) Visual imagery differences in the recall of pictures. British Journal of Psychology 64:17–24.Google Scholar
Marmor, G. S. (1975) Development of kinetic images: When does the child first represent movements in mental images? Cognitive Psychology 7:548–59.Google Scholar
Martin, D. G., Stambrook, M., Tataryn, D. J. & Beihl, H. (1984) Conditioning in the unattended left ear. International Journal of Neuroscience 23:95–102.Google Scholar
Martin, F. N. (1975) Introduction to audiology. Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
May, J. L. & Hamilton, P. A. (1980) Effects of musically evoked affect on women's interpersonal attraction toward and perceptual judgments of physical attractiveness of men. Motivation and Emotion 4:217–28.Google Scholar
McKinney, C. H., Antoni, M. H., Kumar, M., Tims, F. C. & McCabe, P. M. (1997) Effects of Guided Imagery and Music (GIM) therapy on mood and cortisol in healthy adults. Health Psychology 16:390–400.Google Scholar
McKinney, C. H. & Tims, F. C. (1995) Differential effects of selected classical music on the imagery of high versus low imagers: Two studies. Journal of Music Therapy 32:22–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNamara, L. & Ballard, M. E. (1999) Resting arousal, sensation seeking, and music preference. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs 125:229–50.Google Scholar
Menon, V. & Levitin, D. J. (2005) The rewards of music listening: Response and physiological connectivity of the mesolimbic system. NeuroImage 28:175–84.Google Scholar
Meyer, L. B. (1956) Emotion and meaning in music. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Miserendino, M. J. D., Sananes, C. B., Melia, K. R. & Davis, M. (1990) Blocking of acquisition but not expression of conditioned fear-potentiated startle by NMDA antagonists in the amygdala. Nature 345:716–18.Google Scholar
Mitchell, W. B., Dibartolo, P. M., Brown, T. A. & Barlow, D. H. (1998) Effects of positive and negative mood on sexual arousal in sexually functional males. Archives of Sexual Behavior 27:197–207.Google Scholar
Narmour, E. (1991) The top-down and bottom-up systems of musical implication: Building on Meyer's theory of emotional syntax. Music Perception 9:1–26.Google Scholar
Neumann, R. & Strack, F. (2000) Mood contagion: The automatic transfer of mood between persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79:211–23.Google Scholar
Ni, W., Constable, R. T., Mencl, W. E., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Gore, J. C. & Shankweiler, D. (2000) An event-related neuroimaging study distinguishing form and content in sentence processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12:120–33.Google Scholar
North, A. C. & Hargreaves, D. J. (1997) Experimental aesthetics and everyday music listening. In: The social psychology of music, ed. Hargreaves, D. J. & North, A. C., pp. 84–103. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
North, A. C., Tarrant, M. & Hargreaves, D. J. (2004) The effects of music on helping behavior: A field study. Environment and Behavior 36:266–75.Google Scholar
Noy, P. (1993) How music conveys emotion. In: Psychoanalytic explorations in music, 2nd edition, ed. Feder, S., Karmel, R. L. & Pollock, G. H., pp. 125–49. International Universities Press.Google Scholar
Nyberg, L., McIntosh, A. R., Houle, S., Nilsson, L.-G. & Tulving, E. (1996) Activation of medial-temporal structures during episodic memory retrieval. Nature 380:715–17.Google Scholar
Nyklíček, I., Thayer, J. F. & Van Doornen, L. J. P. (1997) Cardiorespiratory differentiation of musically-induced emotions. Journal of Psychophysiology 11:304–21.Google Scholar
Oatley, K., Keltner, D. & Jenkins, J. M. (2006) Understanding emotions, 2nd edition. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Öhman, A. & Mineka, S. (2001) Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Towards an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review 108:483–522.Google Scholar
Olatunji, B. O., Lohr, J. M., Sawchuk, C. N. & Westendorf, D. H. (2005) Using facial expressions as CSs and fearsome and disgusting pictures as UCSs: Affective responding and evaluative learning of fear and disgust in blood-injection-injury phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 19:539–55.Google Scholar
Orne, M. T. (1962) On the social psychology of the psychological experiment with particular reference to demand characteristics and their implications. American Psychologist 17:776–83.Google Scholar
Osborne, J. W. (1980) The mapping of thoughts, emotions, sensations, and images as responses to music. Journal of Mental Imagery 5:133–36.Google Scholar
Osborne, J. W. (1989) A phenomenological investigation of the musical representation of extra-musical ideas. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 20:151–75.Google Scholar
Panksepp, J. & Bernatzky, G. (2002) Emotional sounds and the brain: The neuro-affective foundations of musical appreciation. Behavioural Processes 60:133–55.Google Scholar
Parrott, W. G. & Hertel, P. (1999) Research methods in cognition and emotion. In: Handbook of cognition and emotion, ed. Dalgleish, T. & Power, M. J., pp. 61–82. Wiley.Google Scholar
Pascual-Leone, A., Davey, N. J., Rothwell, J., Wassermann, E. M. & Puri, B. K., eds. (2002) Handbook of transcranial magnetic stimulation. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Patel, A. D. (2003) Language, music, syntax, and the brain. Nature Neuroscience 6:674–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patel, A. D. (2008) Music, language, and the brain. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pelletier, C. L. (2004) The effect of music on decreasing arousal due to stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Music Therapy 41:192–214.Google Scholar
Peretz, I. (2001) Listen to the brain: A biological perspective on musical emotions. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 105–34. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Perner, J. & Ruffman, T. (1995) Episodic memory and autonoetic consciousness: Developmental evidence and a theory of childhood amnesia. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 59:516–48.Google Scholar
Peters, E., Hess, T. M., Västfjäll, D. & Auman, C. (2007) Adult age differences in dual information processes: Implications for the role of affective and deliberative processes in older adults' decision making. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2:1–23.Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1951) Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. Routledge.Google Scholar
Pignatiello, M. F., Camp, C. J. & Rasar, L. A. (1986) Musical mood induction: An alternative to the Velten technique. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 94:51–63.Google Scholar
Pike, A. (1972) A phenomenological analysis of emotional experience in music. Journal of Research in Music Education 20:262–67.Google Scholar
Plomp, R. & Levelt, W. J. M. (1965) Tonal consonance and critical bandwidth. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 37:548–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ploog, D. W. (1992) The evolution of of vocal communication. In: Nonverbal vocal communication: Comparative and developmental approaches, ed. Papousek, H., Jürgens, U. & Papousek, M., pp. 6–30. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Plutchik, R. (1984) Emotions and imagery. Journal of Mental Imagery 8:105–11.Google Scholar
Preston, S. D. & de Waal, F. B. M. (2002) Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25(1):1–72.Google Scholar
Quittner, A. & Glueckauf, R. (1983) The facilitative effects of music on visual imagery: A multiple measures approach. Journal of Mental Imagery 7:105–20.Google Scholar
Raloff, J. (1982) Occupational noise–the subtle pollutant. Science News 121:347.Google Scholar
Razran, G. (1954) The conditioned evocation of attitudes: Cognitive conditioning? Journal of Experimental Psychology 48:278–82.Google Scholar
Reber, A. S. (1993) Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Reimer, B. (2003) A philosophy of music education, 3rd edition. Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Reisberg, D. & Heuer, F. (2004) Memory for emotional events. In: Memory and emotion, ed. Reisberg, D. & Hertel, P., pp. 3–41. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rieber, M. (1965) The effect of music on the activity level of children. Psychonomic Science 3:325–26.Google Scholar
Rizzolatti, G. & Craighero, L. (2004) The mirror-neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience 27:169–92.Google Scholar
Robinson, J. (2005) Deeper than reason: Emotion and its role in literature, music, and art. Oxford University Press/Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Rolls, E. T. (2007) Emotion elicited by primary reinforcers and following stimulus-reinforcement association learning. In: Handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment, ed. Coan, J. A. & Allen, J. J. B., pp. 137–57. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Russell, J. A. (1980) A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39:1161–78.Google Scholar
Sacchetti, B., Scelfo, B. & Strata, P. (2005) The cerebellum: Synaptic changes and fear conditioning. The Neuroscientist 11:217–27.Google Scholar
Sagi, A. & Hoffman, M. L. (1976) Empathic distress in the newborn. Developmental Psychology 12:175–76.Google Scholar
Schacter, D. L., Alpert, N. M., Savage, C. R., Rauch, S. L. & Alpert, M. S. (1996) Conscious recollection and the human hippocampal formation: Evidence from positron emission tomography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 93:321–25.Google Scholar
Scherer, K. R. (1999) Appraisal theories. In: Handbook of cognition and emotion, ed. Dalgleish, T. & Power, M., pp. 637–63. Wiley.Google Scholar
Scherer, K. R. (2000b) Psychological models of emotion. In: The neuropsychology of emotion, ed. Borod, J., pp. 137–62. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Scherer, K. R. (2003) Why music does not produce basic emotions: A plea for a new approach to measuring emotional effects of music. In: Proceedings of the Stockholm Music Acoustics Conference 2003, ed. Bresin, R., pp. 25–28. Royal Institute of Technology.Google Scholar
Scherer, K. R. & Zentner, M. R. (2001) Emotional effects of music: Production rules. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 361–92. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schmidt, L. A., Trainor, L. J. & Santesso, D. L. (2003) Development of frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) and heart rate (ECG) responses to affective musical stimuli during the first 12 months of post-natal life. Brain and Cognition 52:27–32.Google Scholar
Schoenemann, P. T. (1999) Syntax as an emergent characteristic of the evolution of semantic complexity. Minds and Machines 9:309–46.Google Scholar
Schulkind, M. D., Hennis, L. K. & Rubin, D. C. (1999) Music, emotion, and autobiographical memory: They are playing our song. Memory and Cognition 27:948–55.Google Scholar
Schwartz, G. E., Weinberger, D. A. & Singer, J. A. (1981) Cardiovascular differentiation of happiness, sadness, anger, and fear following imagery and exercise. Psychosomatic Medicine 43:343–64.Google Scholar
Shahidullah, S. & Hepper, P. G. (1993) The developmental origins of fetal responsiveness to an acoustic stimulus. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology 11:135–42.Google Scholar
Silvia, P. J. (2005) Emotional responses to art: From collation and arousal to cognition and emotion. Review of General Psychology 9:342–57.Google Scholar
Simner, M. L. (1971) Newborns' response to the cry of another infant. Developmental Psychology 5:136–50.Google Scholar
Sloboda, J. A. (1989) Music as a language. In: Music and child development, ed. Wilson, F. & Roehmann, F., pp. 28–43. MMB Music.Google Scholar
Sloboda, J. A. (1991) Music structure and emotional response: Some empirical findings. Psychology of Music 19:110–20.Google Scholar
Sloboda, J. A. (1992) Empirical studies of emotional response to music. In: Cognitive bases of musical communication, ed. Riess-Jones, M. & Holleran, S., pp. 33–46. American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Sloboda, J. A. (1996) Emotional responses to music: A review. In: Proceedings of the Nordic Acoustical Meeting (NAM96), ed. Riederer, K. & Lahti, T., pp. 385–92. The Acoustical Society of Finland.Google Scholar
Sloboda, J. A. & Juslin, P. N. (2001) Psychological perspectives on music and emotion. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 71–104. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sloboda, J. A. & O'Neill, S. A. (2001) Emotions in everyday listening to music. In: Music and emotion: Theory and research, ed. Juslin, P. N. & Sloboda, J. A., pp. 415–29. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sollberger, B., Reber, R. & Eckstein, D. (2003) Musical chords as affective priming context in a word-evaluation task. Music Perception 20:263–82.Google Scholar
Somerville, L. H., Heatherton, T. F. & Kelley, W. M. (2006) Anterior cingulate cortex responds differentially to expectancy violation and social rejection. Nature Neuroscience 9:1007–1008.Google Scholar
Soussignan, R. & Schaal, B. (2005) Emotional processes in human newborns: A functionalist perspective. In: Emotional development, ed. Nadel, J. & Muir, D., pp. 127–59. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Spelt, D. K. (1948) The conditioning of the human fetus in utero. Journal of Experimental Psychology 38:338–46.Google Scholar
Steinbeis, N., Koelsch, S. & Sloboda, J. A. (2006) The role of harmonic expectancy violations in musical emotions: Evidence from subjective, physiological, and neural responses. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18:1380–93.Google Scholar
Stratton, V. N. & Zalanowski, A. H. (1989) The effects of music and paintings on mood. Journal of Music Therapy 26:30–41.Google Scholar
Stratton, V. N. & Zalanowski, A. H. (1991) The effects of music and cognition on mood. Psychology of Music 19:121–27.Google Scholar
Swanwick, K. (1985) A basis for music education. NFER-Nelson.Google Scholar
Swanwick, K. (2001) Music development theories revisited. Music Education Research 3:227–42.Google Scholar
Teasdale, J. D. (1999) Multi-level theories of cognition-emotion relations. In: Handbook of cognition and emotion, ed. Dalgleish, T. & Power, M., pp. 665–81. Wiley.Google Scholar
Teasdale, J. D. & Spencer, P. (1984) Induced mood and estimates of past success. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 23:149–52.Google Scholar
Thayer, R. E. (1996) The origin of everyday moods. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Toomey, L. (1996) Literature review: The Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music. Journal of the Association for Music and Imagery 5:75–104.Google Scholar
Trainor, L. J. & Trehub, S. E. (1994) Key membership and implied harmony in Western tonal music: Developmental perspectives. Perception and Psychophysics 56:125–32.Google Scholar
Tranel, D. (2000) Electrodermal activity in cognitive neuroscience: Neuroanatomical and neuropsychological correlates. In: Cognitive neuroscience of emotion, ed. Lane, R. D. & Nadel, L., pp. 192–224. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1983) Elements of episodic memory. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (2002) Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology 53:1–25.Google Scholar
Vaitl, D., Vehrs, W. & Sternagel, S. (1993) Promts–Leitmotif–Emotion: Play it again, Richard Wagner. In: The structure of emotion: Psychophysiological, cognitive, and clinical aspects, ed. Birnbaumer, N. & Öhman, A., pp. 169–89. Hogrefe & Huber.Google Scholar
Västfjäll, D. (2002a) A review of the musical mood induction procedure. Musicae Scientiae (Special Issue 2001–2002):173–211.Google Scholar
Västfjäll, D. (in press) Affective reactions to sounds without meaning. Cognition and Emotion.Google Scholar
Waterman, M. (1996) Emotional responses to music: Implicit and explicit effects in listeners and performers. Psychology of Music 24:53–67.Google Scholar
Wells, A. & Hakanen, E. A. (1991) The emotional uses of popular music by adolescents. Journalism Quarterly 68:445–54.Google Scholar
Wildschut, R., Sedikides, C., Arndt, J. & Routledge, C. (2006) Nostalgia: Content, triggers, functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91:975–93.Google Scholar
Wilson, E. O. (1975) Sociobiology. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Witvliet, C. V. & Vrana, S. R. (2007) Play it again Sam: Repeated exposure to emotionally evocative music polarises liking and smiling responses, and influences other affective reports, facial EMG, and heart rate. Cognition and Emotion 21:3–25.Google Scholar
Wood, J. V., Saltzberg, J. A. & Goldsamt, L. A. (1990) Does affect induce self-focused attention? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58:899–908.Google Scholar
Zentner, M. R. & Kagan, J. (1996) Perception of music by infants. Nature 383(6595):29.Google Scholar
Zillman, D. & Gan, S.-L. (1997) Musical taste in adolescence. In: The social psychology of music, ed. Hargreaves, D. J. & North, A. C., pp. 161–87. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Zwicker, E. & Fastl, H. (1999) Psychoacoustics: Facts and models. Springer.Google Scholar