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Military Justice as an Instrument of American Occupation Policy in Austria 1945–1950: From Total Control to Limited Tutelage

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2009

Kurt K. Tweraser
Kurt K. Tweraser
Affiliation:
Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701.
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Extract

This Essay Provides a critical assessment of the system of military justice established in Austria by the American occupation authorities. It places military justice and its function in the wider context of U.S. occupation policy as it developed from total control to increasingly milder forms of tutelage under the impact of the Cold War and increasing Austrian self-assertion. The essay is based on the hitherto largely untapped files contained in seventy-five boxes of the Legal Division of the U.S. Military Government in Austria, collected in two visits in 1990 and 1991 to the National Archives in Suitland, Maryland.

Type
Articles
Information
Austrian History Yearbook , Volume 24 , January 1993 , pp. 153 - 178
Copyright
Copyright © Center for Austrian Studies, University of Minnesota 1993

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References

This essay is a revision of a paper presented at the annual conference of the German Studies Association in September 1991 at Los Angeles. The author thanks two anonymous referees for their suggestions, which helped to clarify the major points.

1 A growing body of literature traces the trajectory of American occupation from total control to limited tutelage. See especially Bischof, Günter J., “Between Responsibility and Rehabilitation: Austria in International Politics, 1940–1950,” Ph.D. dissertation (Harvard University, 1989)Google Scholar; and Bischof, Günter and rost, Josef Leidenf, eds. Die bevormundete Nation. Osterreich und die Alliierten 1945–1949 (Innsbruck, 1988)Google Scholar.

2 National Archives, Suitland, Maryland, USFA (United States Forces Austria), USACA (United States Element, Allied Commission for Austria), Legal Division, Record Group 260, Boxes 1–75, hereafter cited as 260/Box no./File no. L (Legal).

3 Regional Legal Conference Minutes, held 18 June 1945, 260/68/337–370 L.

4 Directive prepared by the State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee, transmitted to Clark by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, made public by the State Department on 28 October 1945. See Department of State Bulletin 13 (1945): 661–73.

5 For a discussion of total control, see Stourzh, Gerald, “Die Regierung Renner, die Anfänge der Regierung Figl und die Alliierte Kommission für Österreich, September 1945 bis April 1946,” Archiv fur Ostemichische Geschichte 125 (1966): 312–42Google Scholar. See also the introduction to Bischof and Leidenfrost, Bevormundete Nation, 11–43.

6 MG Ordinance 101; 260/2/25 L.

7 MG Ordinance 100; 260/2/25 L; not published until 10 August 1945.

8 Deutsch, Eberhard P., “Military Government: Administration of Occupied Territory,” American Bar Association Journal 33 (02 1947): 133–36, 200.Deutsch was to become the first head of the Legal Division, USACAGoogle Scholar.

9 The best treatment of the American system of MG courts in Germany is a series of articles by Eli E. Nobleman, an MG court official of considerable experience and standing in Germany. See “The Administration of Justice in the United States Zone of Germany,” Federal Bar Journal 8 (10 1946): 70–79Google Scholar; “American Military Government Courts in Germany,” American Journal of International Law 40 (10 1946): 80–312Google Scholar; “Procedure and Evidence in American Military Government Courts in the United States Zone of Germany,” Federal Bar Journal 8 (01 1947): 212–48Google Scholar; “American Military Government Courts in Germany,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 267 (01 1950): 87–97Google Scholar; and “United States Military Courts in Germany: Setting an Example and Learning Lessons,” in Americans as Proconsuls: United States Military Government in Germany and Japan, 1944–1952, ed. Wolfe, Robert (Carbondale, 111., 1984), 181–97.Google Scholar

For general treatments of the establishment of the judicial system in Germany, see also Loewenstein, Karl, “Reconstruction of the Administration of Justice in American-Occupied Germany,” Harvard Law Review 61 (1947–1948): 419–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and “Justice in Governing Postwar Germany,” Litchfield, Edward H. et al. , Governing Postwar Germany (Ithaca, N.Y., 1953), 236–62Google Scholar; also Stolleis, Michael, “Rechtsordnung und Justizpolitik 1945–1949,” in Europaisches Rechtsdenken in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Festschrift fur Helmut Coing zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. Horn, Norbert, vol. 1 (Munich, 1982), 282–407Google Scholar; and Broszat, Martin, “Siegerjustiz oder strafrechtliche ‘Selbstreinigung,’“ in Vierteljahrshefte fur Zeitgeschichte 29 (1981): 477–544Google Scholar.

10 Ordinance 200, 260/2/75 L.

11 Benson, George C. S., “American Military Government in Austria, May 1945-February 1946,” in American Experiences in Military Government in World War II, Friedrich, Carl J. et al. (New York, 1948), 169–94Google Scholar.

12 Memo, Captain Gordon to Captain Pettibone, 21 July 1945, 260/62/319.1 L.

13 Albert Lowy, Legal Division Regional MG Detachment, Activity Report 5 June 45–11 June 45. 260/62/319.1 L.

14 Memo, Col. George H. McCaffrey, Regional MG Headquarters Salzburg to G-5, XV Corps, 12 June 1945, 260/22/015 L. However, in November 1945, the U.S. authorities, in response to vigorous protests by conservative Austrian politicians, softened their attitude. Members of the Heimwehr and the Sturmscharen who took an active and prominent part in those organizations were removable but could be retained or reinstated if their political record was other-wise satisfactory and if they were eligible to vote and to be elected to office. Telegram G-2 (Cl) USFA to Commanding General, 42nd Infantry Division, 7 November 1945.

15 Eberhard Deutsch, Chief, Legal Division, to Commanding Officer, Regional MG Head-quarters Salzburg, Report on the Status of Legal Affairs in U.S. Zone, 12 June 1945, 260/22/015 L. Also Summary Court Instructions no. 3, 4 September 1945, 260/49/250.3 L.

16 Regional Legal Conference Minutes, held 18 June 1945, 260/68/337–370 L.

17 See Stiefel, Dieter, Entnazifizierung in Östemich (Vienna, 1981), 150Google Scholar; and Kos, Wolfgang, “Zur Entnazifizierung der Bvirokratie,” in Verdmngte Schuld, verfehlte Sühne. Entnazifizierung in Österreich 1945–1955, eds. Meissl, Sebastian, Mulley, Klaus Dieter, and Rathkolb, Oliver (Munich, 1986), 52–72Google Scholar.

18 Eberhard P. Deutsch, Chief, Legal Division to General Flory, 22 January 1946, proposed eight-months report of Legal Division, 260/61/319.1 L.

19 Minutes from Eberhard Deutsch to General Tate, Chief of Staff, 28 March 1946, 260/61/ 319.1 L; also Headquarters USFA to Commanding General, Zone Command Organization for Military Government, U.S. Zone, Austria, 10 April 1946, 260/65/319.12 L.

20 Eberhard Deutsch, Memo, Organization and Functions of Legal Division, USACA Section, 30 December 1945, 260/65/322.1 L. Deutsch's successor, a professor of psychology at the College of William and Mary, was chief, Legal Division, from 12 June 1946 to 12 June 1947. Although a jurist by training in Austria, he had given up jurisprudence for psychology in the United States and had not kept up with legal developments in Austria. Even his German had deteriorated. He was a most unfortunate choice since neither his subordinates in the Legal Division nor the military professionals respected him. His successors were military officers again. See Simon, Joseph T., Augenzeuge (Vienna, 1979), 338–39Google Scholar.

21 Lowy, Legal Division, USACA, to Chief Spec. Br., 5 May 1946, 260/22/015L; also Oliver Rathkolb, “U.S. Entnazifizierung in Osterreich zwischen kontrollierter Revolution und Elitenrestauration (1945–1949),” Zeitgeschichte 11 (1984): 302–25.

22 Joseph W. Levy to Legal Division, USACA, 26 October 1945, 260/13/013.2 L. Others were not so lucky and ended up in Camp Marcus Orr, a detention camp near Glasenbach.

23 Joseph W. Levy to Legal Division 10 November 1945, 260/13/013.2 L.

24 Rauchensteiner, Manfried, Der Sonderfall. Die Besatzungszeit in Osterreich 1945 bis 1955 (Graz, 1979)Google Scholar; see also Josef Leidenfrost, “Die Nationalratswahlen 1945 und 1949; Innenpolitik zwischen den Besatzungsmachten,” in Bischof and Leidenfrost, eds., Die bevormundete Nation, 127–53; and Bader, William B., Austria between East and West, 1945–1955 (Stanford, Calif., 1966)Google Scholar.

25 Colvin, Milton, “Principal Issues in the U.S. Occupation of Austria, 1945–1948,” in U.S. Occupation in Europe after World War II, ed., Schmitt, Hans A., (Lawrence, Kans., 1978)Google Scholar.

26 Headquarters USFA to Commanding General, Zone Command, Implementation of the New Control Agreement, 18 July 1946, 260/41/072.1–092.1 L.

27 Statement Regarding Austria Issued by the Department of State, 30 October 1946, 260/ 40/032.1–072 L.

28 IRS Acting Chief, USACA Section, to all Division Chiefs, Broad Principles for Detailed Interpretation of New Control Agreement, 6 August 1946, 260/39/032.1 L.

29 When the American forces entered their occupation zone in Vienna in August 1945, they encountered an already-ongoing Austrian judicial system and found it opportune not to impose Ordinance 200, since by and large, there was no indication of any action by the Austrian government “which would have been contrary to U.S. policy had the regime been operating under USMG directive.” Legal Division, USACA, Progress Report for week ending 1 September 1945, 2 September 1945, 260/61/319.1 L. For an Austrian version of the first months of the Austrian judicial system, see Weinzierl, Erika, “Die Anfange des Wiederaufbaus der osterreichischen Justiz 1945,” in 25 jahre Staatsvertrag. Protokolle des wissenschaftlichen Symposions “justiz und Zeitgeschichte” (Vienna, 1981), 14–45Google Scholar.

30 Memo, Albert Lowy and Joseph T. Simon to Major Frank D. Smuin, Proposal to Create an Appeal Court (MG Courts), 15 October 1946, 260/49/250.5 L. In February 1946, clemency boards already had been established at the regional level; these were empowered to effect clemency under exceptional conditions of hardship, character and past record of the prisoner, recommendations from the outside agencies, and so on. In addition, one Austrian judicial procedure was adopted whereby a person sentenced is entitled to have the last one-third of his term suspended for good behavior after he has served at least eight months. Military Government Instruction (MGI) no. 78, 12 February 1946, 260/66/322.1 L.

31 Legal Division, USACA, to Chief, USACA, 14 October 1947, 260/50/250.5 L.

32 MGI no. 95, 14 May 1946, 260/38/016.1–032.1 L.

33 For example, Executive Officer, USACA, to Legal Division, Policy on Dealing with the Austrian Government, 29 April 1947, 260/38/016.1–032. L; Chief Economic and Finance Di-vision to Executive Officer, USACA, Coordination and Cooperation in Civil Government, 27 June 1947, 260/34/015.1 L.

34 Executive Officer, USACA, to Chief, Legal Division, 6 May 1947; and Legal Division, USACA, to Chief Legal Officers, Salzburg and Linz, 8 August 1947. 260/12/010.1–010.62 L.

35 For example, Resolution of the Nationalrat, 7 May 1947. SeeLuger, Johan, “Parlament und alliierte Besatzung 1945–1955,” Ph.D. dissertation, (Vienna, 1976)Google Scholar; also John G. Erhardt to Secretary of State, Conference of the Austrian Socialist Party, with Text of Important Keynote Speech by Vice-Chancellor Schaerf, 12 May 1957, Record Group 84, Foreign Service Posts of Department of State, Austria, POLAD and USCOA, General Records, 1945–52, 1947, Box 85, File 800–804.4 (hereafter cited as 84/85/800–804.4,1947). For a convenient collection of memos from the political advisers to the high commissioner in Austria to the Department of State, seeWagnleitner, Reinhold, ed., Understanding Austria: The Political Reports and Analyses of Martin F. Herz, Political Officer of the U.S. Legation in Vienna, 1945–1948 (Salzburg, 1984)Google Scholar.

36 Norcross, F. T., Chief, Internal Affairs Division, USACA, to Assistant Deputy Commissioner, Report on trip to U.S. Zone by Chief of Internal Affairs Division, USACA, 19 07 1946, 260/56/300–2–300–4 LGoogle Scholar.

37 One of the reviewing judges has given a vivid account of this unfortunate case. See Simon, Augenzeuge, 359–60.

38 See IRS Gray, President, MG Review Board, to Chief, Legal Division, 18 November 1947, 260/50/250.5L. See also Ernst Hanisch, “Braune Flecken im Goldenen Westen. Die Entnazifizierung in Salzburg,” in Meissl et al., eds. Verdrāngte Schuld, verfehlte Sühne, 324. Daspelgruber had already served seventeen months of his sentence.

39 Indispensable for the Austrian State Treaty isStourzh, Gerald, Geschkhte des Staatsvertrages 1945–1955. Österreichs Weg zur Neutralitā (Graz, 1985)Google Scholar. For the Marshall Plan, see Wilfried Māhr, “Der Marshallplan in Österreich: Tanz nach einer ausländischen Pfeife,” in Bischof and Leidenfrost, eds., Bevormundele Nation, 245–72.

40 Mattl, Siegfried, “Frauen in Ósterreich nach 1945,” in Unterdrückung und Emanzipation. Festachrift für Erika Weinzierl zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. Ardelt, Rudolf G. et al. (Vienna, 1985), 101–26Google Scholar.

41 Erhardt, John G. to Secretary of State, Analysis of Austrian Communist Propaganda during April, 12 06 1947, 84/85/800–804.4 GenGoogle Scholar.

42 Rankin, K. L. to General Clark, Political Summary for Austria, 4/15 May 1947, 15 06 1947, 84/83/707–710 GenGoogle Scholar.

43 Chief, Legal Division to Chief, USACA Section, 31 July 1947, 260/68/337–370 L.

44 History of the G-2 Intelligence Section, July-September 1947, 260/5/44 H (Historical Files).

45 For the attitudes of Austrians toward Jewish DPs, seeAlbrich, Thomas, Exodus durch Österreich. Die jüdischen Flüchtlinge 1945–1948 (Innsbruck, 1987), especially 180–204Google Scholar; and Survey no. 33, The Attitude of the Native Population toward Refugees and Displaced Persons, Headquarters USFA, Information Services Branch, Survey Section, 18 March 1948. In RG 407, Box 1426/33 Adjutant General Office.

46 Orientation Talk, Colonel Brotherton, no date, 260/17/2 Education Division.

47 According to Austrian law, a public disorder can only exist when, through the action of the persons, an active intervention of law enforcement agencies is called for and is actually executed. The Austrian police apparently did not consider the anti-Semitic shouts an incitement to public disorder, considering them mere expressions of hostile feelings rather than a call for hostile action. For a succinct elaboration of the relevant points of Austrian law, see the petition for the review of the judgment by the defenders of the two principal accused, Dr. Franz Zamponi, Linz, and Dr. Kurt Regner, Vienna, dated 14 October 1947. I am indebted to Dr. Regner for this and other material concerning the trial.

48 The chief prosecutor was Bernard Corwin, the chief legal officer of MG Upper Austria; the chief judge was Col. Claude Billingsley, chief of G-4 in Upper Austria, perhaps a good engineer but not versed in the law.

49 See Knight, Robert, ed., Ich bin dafür, die Sache in die Lānge zu ziehen. Die Wortprotokolle der österreichischen Bundesregierung von 1945 bis 1952 über die Entschädigung der Juden (Frankfurt, 1988), 177–89Google Scholar. Even before the announcement of the verdicts, Chancellor Figl sent a letter to General Keyes asking for the abrogation of Ordinance 200. Letter Figl to Keyes, 18 September 1947, 2943/XXXVI, Archiv der Republik, Wien, Bundeskanzleramt, Verbindungsstelle zum Alliierten Rat.

50 Memo, John G. Erhardt to General Keyes, 22 September 1947, 84/8/715–800 Classified Records.

51 Memo, Martin Herz to Mr. Erhardt, Verdict in the Bad Ischl trial, 24 September 1947, 84/85/800–804.4 Gen.

52 For the propaganda aspects, see Rathkolb, Oliver, “Politische Propaganda der amerikanischen Besatzungsmacht in Österreich 1945 bis 1950. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Kalten Krieges in der Presse-, Kultur- und Rundfunkpolitik,” Ph.D. dissertation, (Vienna, 1981), 169–71Google Scholar.

53 Arbeiter Zeitung, 17.9.1947; also Intelligence Bulletin no. 516, 17 September 1947, 84/85/800–804.4 Gen.

54 Telegram, Erhardt to Secretary of State, 26 September 1947, 84/8/715–800 Classified. In response, the State Department recommended to the Department of the Army revision of MG Ordinance 200 to make it fully consistent with the principles of the new Control Agreement and the broad objectives of U.S. policy. Lovett to Vienna, 3 October 1947.

55 Letter, Keyes to Figl, 10 October 1947, 2573/VI, BKA, Verbindungsstelle zum Alliierten Rat. The two major defendants were released in April 1948, the others much earlier.

56 John G. Erhardt to Secretary of State, Memo no. 3435, 16 October 1947, 84/8/715–800 Classified.

57 Briefing of General Kendall. Organization and Functions connected with S-5 Section, Headquarters Land Upper Austria Area Command, no date, but definitely after June 1948. 260/24/ 217 Historical Files Upper Austria.

58 See Rathkolb, Oliver, “Zur Konrinuität antisemitischer und rassistischer Vorurteile in Österreich 1945/50,” Zeitqeschkhte 16 (1989): 167–79Google Scholar. For evidence of anti-Semitism in Upper Austria, see alsoHorowitz, Gordon J., In the Shadow of Death: Living outside the Gates of Mauthausen (New York, 1990), 164–88Google Scholar.

59 See Review and Action by the Reviewing Authority in the Cases of the United States vs. Kochane Fischer and Leon Armant, 6 October 1947, 260/50/250.5 L.

60 See Sicherheitsdirektion O. Ö. to the Landesmilitärregierung O. Ö., Monatsbericht 23.9–22.10, 1947, 260/13/57 Public Safety Upper Austria.

61 Legal Division to Office, Director USACA, U.S. Commissioner Report, 28 November 1947, 260/61/319.1 L; also MGI 142, Rescission of Certain Provisions of Ordinance 200–Crimes and Offenses, 22 November 1947, 260/12/0101.1–010.62 L. At that time it was estimated that only about 40 percent of the cases tried by MG courts were of definite interest to the Allied forces.

62 Geoffrey Keyes to Harry J. Collins, Commanding General, Zone Command, Austria, no date, 260/41/072.1–092.1 L.

63 Haynes, Brigadier General to Commanding Officer, Salzburg, Land Area Command, 29 10 1947, 260/37/0160–016.1 LGoogle Scholar.

64 For a discussion of the year 1948, see Gunter Bischof, “Prag liegt westlich von Wien. Internationale Krisen im Jahre 1948 und ihr EinfluG auf Österreich,” in Bischof and Leidenfrost, eds., Bevormundete Nation, 315–45.

65 Mellen, Memo to Erhardt, and Yost, , Turnover of Authority to Austrians, 16 03 1948, 260/4/16/ SB Executive OfficeGoogle Scholar.

66 Civil Affairs Instruction no. 155, 20 April 1948; and General Order no. 27, Headquarters USFA, 24 May 1948, 260/52/300 L.

67 Draft of Reply to Questions Submitted to Legal Division for Information for USACA Quarterly Historical Report for 1 April to 30 June 1948, 260/61/319.1 L; also Memo no. 94 by Martin F. Herz to Mr. Erhardt, 26 March 1948; “Turnover of Authority to the Austrian Government,” in Wagnleitner, ed., Understanding Austria, 357–59, 389, 395–97; and IRS Austrian Affairs Branch to Chief, Legal Division, 21 September 1948, Turnover of Responsibilities and Functions to the Austrian Government, 260/14/013.35–1 L.

68 MacConnel, G. B., Headquarters, , Land Upper Austria Area Command, to President, Oberlandesgericht Linz, 3 05 1948Google Scholar, 260/37/016.0–016.1 L. What this meant in practice out in the zone was that purely administrative violations such as driving a vehicle with illegible bumper markings were still handled in Civil Affairs Summary Courts. Headquarters USFA to Commanding General, Zone Command, 25 May 1948, 260/50/250.5 L.

69 Letter from Jesmond Balmer, D., deputy commissioner, to General Kendall, 23 06 1948, 260/59/312–319Google Scholar L; and Headquarters USFA to Commanding General, Zone Command, June 1948, 260/11/010.1–010.01 L; also Whitnah, Donald R. and Erickson, Edgar L., The American Occupation of Austria; Planning and the Early Years (Westport, Conn., 1985), 250–.51Google Scholar.

70 Headquarters USFA to Commanding General, Zone Command Austria, 26 July 1948, 260/2/010.1–01062 L.

71 Figl to General Keyes, 16 October 1948, Directions of the Allied Occupying Powers in the Different Occupation Zones, and Their Relation to the Control Agreement of 28 June 1946, 260/14/013.35–1 L.

73 Keyes to Figl, 7 February 1949, 260/59/312–319 L.

74 Legal Division, USACA, to D/USACA, Mr. Whiting, 14 January 1949, 260/66/322.1–1 L. For the revised Ordinance, 12 January 1949, 260/72/900 L.

75 Legal Division to Director, USACA, 13 January 1949, 260/71/451–900 L.

76 Keyes to Figl, 18 March 1949, 4332/VI, BKA, Verbindungsstelle zum Alliierten Rat.

76 D/USACA to Legal Division, 22 June 1949, 260/71/451–900 L.

77 Legal Division, USACA, to D/USACA, 12 August 1949, 260/43/150.02–200 L.

78 Keyes to Figl, 14 October 1949, 5011/VI, BKA, Verbindungsstelle zum Alliierten Rat. For Austrian commentaries on the gradual retreat of the American authorities, see Weinzierl, Erika, “Probleme der õsterreichischen Justiz 1949/50,” in Politik und Gesellschaft im alten und neuen Österreich. Festschrift für Rudolf Neck zum 60. Ceburtstag, ed. Ackerl, I. et al. , vol. 2 (Vienna, 1981), 293–314Google Scholar; and Jagschitz, Gerhard, “Der EinfluB der alliierten Besatzungsmächte auf die österreichische Strafgerichtsbarkeit von 1945 bis 1955,” in 25 jahre Staatsvertrag (Munich, 1981), 114–Google Scholar31.

79 Data for USACA Quarterly Historical Report covering 1 October-31 December 1949, 260/65/319.15 L.

80 Activities of U.S. Civil Affairs Courts in U.S. Zone and Vienna Area, Table 1, 260/65/ 319.15 L.

81 Keyes to Figl, 6 March 1950, BKA, 5479/VI, Verbindungsstelle zum Alliierten Rat.

82 U.S. High Commissioner for Austria (Keyes) to Department of the Army, Tel. 763.00/9–2650, 26 September 1950; and Tel. 863.062/10–150, Charge in Austria (Dowling) to Secretary of State, 1 October 1950, in Foreign Relations of the United States 1950, vol. 4 (Washington, D.C.), 404–6. For the strike, see also Bader, Austria between East and West, 155–83; MeierWalser, Reinhard, “Der Streikputsch der KP Österreichs 1950 und seine internationalen Hintergründe,” M.A. thesis (Munich, 1985)Google Scholar; and Gruber, Ronald, “Der Massenstreik gegen das 4. Lohn-Preisabkommen im September/Oktober 1950,” Ph.D. dissertation (Vienna, 1975)Google Scholar.

83 Executive Order 10171, 12 October 1950, 84/7/400–510 Top Secret Gen.

84 Comments on department's draft paper (untitled) on the pretreaty occupation concessions, no date, but presumably after January 1954, 84/6/320.1–400 Top Secret Gen.

85 For a survey of military justice in occupied Austria as of June 1953, see Herbert Loebenstein, “Auswirkungen der Besetzung Österreichs auf die Strafgerichtsbarkeit,” in 25 jahre Staatsvertrag, 140–151.

86 Peterson, Edward N., The American Occupation of Germany: Retreat to Victory (Detroit, 1978).Google Scholar