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Law and Emotion: The Lexicon of ‘Enmity’ in Early Modern Inner Austria
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 February 2025
Abstract
This article investigates the lexicon of dispute settlement in early modern Inner Austria, exploring the broadest legal, social, and emotional dimensions of the concept of “enmity” to better understand the nature of dispute settlement and social relations in coeval Central Europe. In particular, the article examines how litigants and courts understood and used “enmity” and its cognates, and how changes in criminal law impacted its usage. The article focuses on interpersonal conflicts and violence among nonnobles, who constituted the vast majority of Inner Austria’s population. It demonstrates that well into the 1700s among local urbanites and peasants, “enmity” and its key synonyms expressing ill-will, discord, or hatred—as opposites of love, concord, and friendship—signified a social state of mutual hostility closely related to violent retribution rather than unrestrained feeling.
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References
1 Civil and Church law (utriusque ius).
2 Zgodovinski arhiv Ljubljana, Mesto Ljubljana, Rokopisne knjige (1320–1945), Zapisniki mestnega sveta, Stara serija, knjiga 36 (1667) (hereafter LJU 488, Cod. I/36 (1667), etc.), fol. 39v, 28 February 1667. (Ljubljana Historical Archives, City of Ljubljana, Manuscripts (1320–1945), Town Council Registers, Old Series, book 36.)
3 Broggio, Paolo, “Narrazioni della vendetta e della giustizia: articolazioni di potere, cultura politica e acculturazione religiosa nell’Europa della prima età moderna,” Krypton 56, no. 5–6 (2015): 41–56 Google Scholar, at 43.
4 Mit gutt gepliett vnd ainigkaytt in der bürgerschafft gebürtt … nitt gedulden das sÿ also die nachpaurschafft in veindschafft vnd emporung wollen geben. LJU 488, Cod. I/3 (1537), fol. 42r–v, 19 January 1537.
5 Provincial courts had criminal jurisdiction over burghers, freeholders, and subjects.
6 Mit der iniuri in daß veht gerattene partheÿen auß hitzigkheit vnd vbrig ainer gegen dem andern der lang geführten vblen vnnachparschafften gerathnen zorn. Arhiv Republike Slovenije, Gospostvo Bled (hereafter AS 721), Kn. 19 (1644–51), 809–10, 31 March 1648. (Archives of the Republic of Slovenia, Lordship Bled.)
7 Erstlich so verwilligen vnd concedieren weillandt Pettern Jacopetsch se: nachgelasne wittib, brüeder vnd dessen gesambte freündtschafft, wegen des entleibten Pettern Jacopetsch verursachten todt halber, den vier gebr: Suettina, den wirkhlichen vnd volmechtigen friden: vnd sichereß glaidt, zu geben, sie auch, in dits orth, in kheinerleÿweiß, noch weeg zuuerheben, noch ainiche feindtschafft zuermessen, sondern wie sich gebiret, guete nachperschafft zu halten, veroblegiren doch dz sie Suettina obbeelter freindtschafft in kheinerleÿweiß noch weeg zu ainichen zorn oder widerwillen, nicht vrsach geben, sondern sich jederzeit zu gegenbeelter freundtschafft freidtlich vnd nachperlich zu erzeigen schuldig sein solten. AS 721, Kn. 20 (1652–55), 25 April 1654.
8 Paolo Broggio, Governare l’odio. Pace e giustizia criminale nell’Italia moderna (secoli XVI–XVII) (Rome, 2021), 84. The latest and seminal work on enmity in early modern Europe is Stuart Carroll, Enmity and Violence in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 2023).
9 Inner Austria was part of the Habsburg hereditary lands in the southeast of the Holy Roman Empire. It consisted of the Duchies of Styria, Carniola, and Carinthia, the Counties of Gorizia and Gradisca (a county from 1647), the City of Trieste, Inner Istria (administered by Carniola), and a few smaller territories, encompassing what is today a large part of the Republic of Austria, the bulk of Slovenia, and a few areas of Italy and Croatia. Following the death of Emperor Ferdinand I in 1564, the Austrian Habsburg territories were divided between his sons, of whom the youngest came to rule Inner Austria as Charles II. During his reign, Inner Austria was organized into a semi-independent polity of the Habsburg lands, with the Styrian capital Graz serving as the seat of the Princely Court. When Charles’s son became Emperor Ferdinand II in 1619, his residence moved to Vienna, but Inner Austria retained much of its autonomy and Graz remained the seat of the Inner Austrian Government until 1746, while the polity was finally integrated into a more centralized Habsburg state in 1749. Karl Spreitzhofer et al., “Notranjeavstrijska centralna oblastva in uprava notranjeavstrijskih dežel do srede 18. stoletja,” (Inner Austrian Central Authorities and the Administration of Inner Austrian Lands until the mid-1700s) in Handbücher und Karten zur Verwaltungsstruktur in den Ländern Kärnten, Krain, Küstenland und Steiermark bis zum Jahre 1918: ein historisch-bibliographischer Führer, ed. Jože Žontar et al. (Graz, 1988), 64–75, at 64–6; Peter Štih and Vasko Simoniti, Slovenska zgodovina do razsvetljenstva (Slovene History until the Enlightenment) (Ljubljana, 1996), 167–71, 182.
10 Jeppe Büchert Netterstrøm and Bjørn Paulsen, eds., Feud in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Aarhus, 2007). Recent international discussions are, for example, Stuart Carroll, ed., Cultures of Violence: Interpersonal Violence in Historical Perspective (Houndmills, 2007); Paolo Broggio and Maria Pia Paoli, eds., Stringere la pace. Teorie e pratiche della conciliazione nell’Europa moderna (secoli XV–XVIII) (Rome, 2011); Johnathan Davies, ed., Aspects of Violence in Renaissance Europe (Farnham, 2013); Stephen Cummins and Laura Kounine, eds., Cultures of Conflict Resolution in Early Modern Europe (London, 2016); Wim Decock, ed., Konfliktlösung in der Frühen Neuzeit. Handbuch zur Geschichte der Konfliktlösung in Europa, Band 3 (Berlin, 2021).
11 Important works on western European countries are, for example, Stuart Carroll, Blood and Violence in Early Modern France (Oxford, 2006); Lloyd Bowen, Anatomy of a Duel in Jacobean England: Gentry, Honour, Violence and the Law (Woodbridge, 2021); Netterstrøm, Jeppe Büchert, “Feuding and Peacemaking among Peasants in Seventeenth-Century Denmark,” Acta Histriae 31, no. 4 (2023): 587–606 Google Scholar. For the Balkans see Christopher Boehm, Blood Revenge: The Enactment and Management of Conflict in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies (Philadelphia, 1984), and, more recently, Ergaver, Angelika, “‘First my Brother, then a Bloodtaker, then my Brother Forever’: The Efficiency of the Traditional Peace-making Custom in Early Modern Age Montenegro and the role of the Venetian Authorities in the Peace-making Process,” Acta Histriae 25, no. 1 (2017): 179–206 Google Scholar.
12 Some seminal works: Osvaldo Raggio, Faide e Parentele: lo stato Genovese visto dalla Fontanabuona (Turin, 1990); Claudio Povolo, L’ intrigo dell’onore. Poteri e istituzioni nella Repubblica di Venezia tra Cinque e Seicento (Verona, 1997); Edward Muir, Mad Blood Stirring: Vendetta in Renaissance Italy (Baltimore, 1998); Colin Rose, A Renaissance of Violence: Homicide in Early Modern Italy (Cambridge, 2019); Broggio, Governare l’odio.
13 For instance, David W. Sabean, Power in the Blood: Popular Culture and Village Discourse in Early Modern Germany (Cambridge, 1984); Andreas Blauert and Gerd Schwerhoff, eds., Mit den Waffen der Justiz: Zur Kriminalitätsgeschichte des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit (Frankfurt am Main, 1993); Thomas Lindenberger and Alf Lüdtke, eds., Physische Gewalt. Studien zur Geschichte der Neuzeit (Frankfurt am Main, 1995); Barbara Krug-Richter and Ruth-E. Mohrmann, eds., Praktiken der Konfliktaustragung in der Frühen Neuzeit (Münster, 2004).
14 While not without its share of well-founded criticism on several significant points, the seminal work on the Fehde as a legal institution of the medieval nobility remains Otto Brunner, Land und Herrschaft: Grundfragen der territorialen Verfassungsgeschichte Österreichs im Mittelalter (Darmstadt 1990), first published in 1939. Some recent works: Julia Eulenstein, Christine Reinle, and Michael Rothmann, eds., Fehdeführung im spätmittelalterlichen Reich: Zwischen adeliger Handlungslogik und territorialer Verdichtung (Affalterbach, 2013); Mathis Prange and Christine Reinle, eds., Fehdehandeln und Fehdegruppen im spätmittelalterlichen und frühneuzeitlichen Europa (Göttingen, 2014).
15 Christine Reinle, Bauernfehden: Studien zur Fehdeführung Nichtadliger im spätmittelalterlichen römisch-deutschen Reich, besonders in den bayerischen Herzogtümern (Wiesbaden, 2003).
16 Hillay Zmora, State and Nobility in Early Modern Germany: The Knightly Feud in Franconia 1440–1567 (Cambridge, 1997); Peters, Jan, “Leute-Fehde: Ein ritualisiertes Konfliktmuster des 16. Jahrhunderts,” Historische Anthropologie 8, no. 1 (2000): 62–97 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Monika Mommertz, “Von Besen und Bündelchen, Brandmahlen und Befehdungsschreiben: Semantiken der Gewalt und die historiographische Entzifferung von ‘Fehde’-Praktiken in einer ländlichen Gesellschaft,” in Streitkulturen: Gewalt, Konflikt und Kommunikation in der ländlichen Gesellschaft (16.–19. Jahrhundert), ed. Magnus Eriksson and Barbara Krug-Richter (Cologne, 2003), 197–248; Carroll, Enmity and Violence, 145–263.
17 For instance, Makuc, Neva, “Noble Violence and Banditry Along the Border Between the Venetian Republic and the Austrian Habsburgs,” Mediterranea: ricerche storiche 12, no. 33 (2015): 211–26Google Scholar; Darovec, Darko, “Fajda med običajem in sodnim procesom. Primer krvnega maščevanja v Kopru leta 1686,” (Feud between Custom and Legal Process. A Case of Blood Feud in Koper in 1686) Annales, Series Historia et Sociologia 28, no. 3 (2018): 451–76Google Scholar; Žiga Oman, Maščevanje na Slovenskem v zgodnjem novem veku: sovražnosti in pomiritve na Kranjskem in Štajerskem (Vengeance in the Early Modern Slovene Lands: Enmities and Peacemaking in Carniola and Styria) (Maribor, 2021).
18 E.g., Winkelbauer, Thomas, “‘Und sollen sich die Parteien gütlich miteinander vertragen.’ Zur Behandlung von Streitigkeiten und von ‘Injurien’ vor den Patrimonialgerichten in Ober- und Niederösterreich in der frühen Neuzeit,” Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Germanistische Abteilung 109 (1992): 129–58Google Scholar; Andrea Griesebner, Konkurrierende Wahrheiten. Malefizprozesse vor dem Landgericht Perchtoldsdorf im 18. Jahrhundert (Wien, 2000); Michaela Hohkamp, “Grausamkeit blutet, Gerechtigkeit zwackt. Überlegungen zu Grenzziehungen zwischen legitimer und nicht-legitimer Gewalt,” in Streitkulturen: Gewalt, Konflikt und Kommunikation in der ländlichen Gesellschaft (16.–19. Jahrhundert), ed. Magnus Eriksson and Barbara Krug-Richter (Cologne, 2003), 59–79; Scheutz, Martin, “Compromise and Shake Hands: The Town Council, Authority and Urban Stability in Austrian Small Towns in the Eighteenth Century,” Urban History 34, no. 1 (2007): 51–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19 In the early modern period, the legal sources in the three duchies that comprised the bulk of Inner Austria were generally in German, even in the provinces (Carniola) and regions (Southern Carinthia, Lower Styria) with a predominantly Slovene-speaking population, including when the judicial proceedings had been completely or largely in the Slovene vernacular. This begins to appear in court records from the sixteenth century, mostly in patrimonial or manor courts. Škrubej, Katja, “Courtroom Oaths and Patrimonial Court in 18th-century Carniola: Vestiges of ‘Ius proprium’ and Local Autonomy (The case of the Estate of Veldes/Bled),” Lex localis: Journal of Local Self-Government 10, no. 3 (2012): 203–28, at 204–5Google Scholar; Golec, Boris, “Slovenščina pred kazenskimi sodišči v zgodnjem novem veku,” (Slovene Language in Early Modern Criminal Courts) Acta Histriae 24, no. 1 (2016): 147–76Google Scholar, at 148–49. All judicial sources analyzed in this article are in German.
20 Bossy, John, “Blood and Baptism: Kinship, Community and Christianity in Western Europe from the Fourteenth to the Seventeenth Centuries,” Studies in Church History 10 (1973), 129–43, at 139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21 For the etymology of Fehde see https://www.dwds.de/wb/Fehde#etymwb-1.
22 Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Legvm: Tomvs 4. inde ab anno Christi qvingentesimo vsqve ad annvm millesimvm et qvingentesimum: I. Edictus Langobardorum, ed. Friedrich Bluhme (Hannover, 1868), 20.
23 Stiftsarchiv Sankt Paul, Urkunden St. Paul, 276, fol. 14v, 14 October 1440, www.monasterium.net/mom/AT-StiAStP/UK/fond; Urkundenbuch des Benedictiner-Stiftes St. Paul in Kärnten, ed. Beda Schroll (Vienna, 1876), 399–400.
24 Including the respective provincial ordinances for Carinthia and Carniola from 1338. Ausgewählte Urkunden zur Verfassungsgeschichte der Deutsch-österreichischen Erblande im Mittelalter, ed. Ernst Schwind and Alphons Dopsch (Innsbruck, 1895), 175–76.
25 Karel Štrekelj, Slovenske narodne pesmi 1: pesmi pripovedne vsebine (Slovene Folk Songs 1: Narrative Songs) (Ljubljana, 1980), 213.
26 The German word Blutrache seems to have originated in the term Blutrecher, coined by Martin Luther in his 1523 translation of the Old Testament (Numbers 35:12). Zacharias, Rainer, “Die Blutrache im deutschen Mittelalter,” Zeitschrift für Altertum und deutsche Literatur 91, no. 3 (1962): 167–201, at 167Google Scholar. In comparison, the Lutheran Jurij Dalmatin, the first to translate the Old Testament into Slovene in 1584, used only avenger, or Maſzhauc, in that verse.
27 Paul Frauenstädt, Blutrache und Todschlagssühne im deutschen Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1881), 10; Zacharias, “Die Blutrache,” 167; Sharp, Tristan W., “Putting the Violence Back in the Late Medieval German Feud,” Austrian History Yearbook 54 (2024): 1–12, at 9.Google Scholar
28 Smail, Daniel L., “Hatred as a Social Institution in Late-Medieval Society,” Speculum 76, no. 1 (2001): 90–126 Google Scholar. See also William Ian Miller, Bloodtaking and Peacemaking: Feud, Law, and Society in Saga Iceland (Chicago, 1996), 180.
29 Andrew T. Alwine, Enmity and Feuding in Classical Athens (Austin, 2015).
30 The history of emotions is a vibrant field and the literature is legion. One comprehensive introduction is Piroska Nagy and Ute Frevert, “History of Emotions,” in Debating New Approaches to History, ed. Marek Tamm and Peter Burke (London, 2019), 189–215.
31 Steiermärkisches Landesarchiv (hereafter StLA), Archiv Rothenfels (hereafter Rothenfels), K.116/H.363, fol. 26r–27v, 30 September 1620; StLA, Rothenfels, K.117/H.364, 1 November 1727.
32 Carroll, Stuart, “From Feud to Enmity,” Acta Histriae 25, no. 2 (2017): 433–44.Google Scholar
33 Darko Darovec, Angelika Ergaver, and Žiga Oman, “The Language of Vengeance: A Glossary of Enmity and Peace,” in Darko Darovec, Vendetta in Koper 1686 (Koper, 2018), 115–46.
34 Paul R. Hyams, Rancour and Reconciliation in Medieval England (Ithaca, 2003).
35 Most famously by Max Gluckman, Custom and Conflict in Africa (London, 1955), whose work is much indebted to Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (Oxford, 1940). See also Colson, Elizabeth, “Social Control and Vengeance in Plateau Tonga Society,” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 23, no. 3 (1953): 199–212 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
36 Alexander Patschovsky, “Fehde im Recht: eine Problemskizze,” in Recht und Reich im Zeitalter der Reformation: Festschrift für Horst Rabe, ed. Christine Roll (Frankfurt am Main, 1996), 145–78.
37 The practice was often much less restrained. In Schleswig and Holstein, for instance, it was not uncommon to kill one’s enemy in a Fehde. See Jespersen, Mikkel Leth, “Die Fehdekultur in den Herzogtümern Schleswig und Holstein im Übergang vom Spätmittelalter zur Frühen Neuzeit,” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Schleswig-Holsteinische Geschichte 134 (2009): 17–57 Google Scholar. Rape was considered a “customary” weapon of feuding at least in parts of Westphalia and Northern Rhineland (Sharp, “Putting the Violence,” 11). Both forms of violence were presumably common in Fehden elsewhere in the empire.
38 See, for instance, Kaminsky, Howard, “The Noble Feud in the Later Middle Ages,” Past and Present 177, no. 1 (2002): 55–83 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robert Bartlett, “‘Mortal Enmities’: The Legal Aspect of Hostility in the Middle Ages,” in Feud, Violence and Practice: Essays in Medieval Studies in Honor of Stephen D. White, ed. Belle S. Tuten and Tracey L. Billado (Farnham, 2010), 197–212; Jean-Philippe Juchs, «Des guerres que aucuns nobles font entre eulx». La faide à la fin du Moyen Âge (Paris, 2021).
39 An important example is chapter 6 (De compromissis) of the Summa totius artis notariae, ed. Arnaldo Forni (Bologna, 1977), a treatise by the Bolognese notary Rolandinus Rudolphi de Passageriis from 1255, which remained in print for several centuries. Darovec, Darko, “Turpiter interfectus: The Seigneurs of Momiano and Petrapilosa in the Customary System of Conflict Resolution in Thirteenth-century Istria,” Acta Histriae 24, no. 1 (2016): 1–42, at 16Google Scholar. For early modern Italian treatises on peacemaking see Carroll, Stuart “Revenge and Reconciliation in Early Modern Italy,” Past and Present 233 (2016): 101–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
40 See, e.g., Pohl, Susanne, “Uneasy Peace: The Practice of the Stallung Ritual in Zürich, 1400–1525,” Journal of Early Modern History 7, no. 1–2 (2003): 28–54 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eibach, Joachim, “Burghers or Town Council: Who Was Responsible for Urban Stability in Early Modern German Towns?” Urban History 34, no. 1 (2007): 14–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41 Thomas Vogel, Fehderecht und Fehdepraxis im Spätmittelalter am Beispiel der Reichsstadt Nürnberg (1404–1438) (Frankfurt am Main, 1998).
42 Oman, Maščevanje na Slovenskem, 77.
43 Quellensammlung zur Geschichte der deutschen Reichsverfassung in Mittelalter und Neuzeit: Quellensammlungen zum Staats-, Verwaltungs- und Völkerrecht, Band 2, ed. Karl Zeumer (Tübingen, 1913), 281. In the fourteenth century, the French kings Philip IV and Charles V also forbade enmities (guerre) among nobles during their own enmities with the English and others. Bartlett, “Mortal Enmities,” 211.
44 See, for example, John France, Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades (Ithaca, 1999), 166–86.
45 Peters, “Leute-Fehde,” 74; Reinle, Bauernfehden, 259–260.
46 Carroll, Enmity and Violence, 150–51, 164.
47 On the etymology of Krieg see https://www.dwds.de/wb/Krieg#etymwb-1, and for “war” https://www.etymonline.com/word/war.
48 Marko Snoj, Slovenski etimološki slovar (Slovene Etymological Dictionary) (Ljubljana, 1997), 271.
49 Peters, “Leute-Fehde”; Mommertz, “Von Besen.”
50 Article 129 of the 1532 Carolina made feuding a capital offense, although no punishment was foreseen for those who had the permission of the emperor, the so-called Repressalia, or clear legal cause, such as retaliating for a defiance against oneself or one’s kin.
51 Marko Kambič, “Razvoj kazenskega prava na Slovenskem do leta 1848,” (The Development of Criminal Law in the Slovene Lands until 1848) in Malefične svoboščine Ljubljančanov = Deren von Laibach Malefitzfreyhaittn: ljubljanski kazenski sodni red, ed. Marko Kambič and Nataša Budna Kodrič (Ljubljana, 2005), 193–221, at 209, 213; Josip Žontar, “Kranjski sodni red za deželska sodišča iz leta 1535,” (The Carniolan Provincial-Court Ordinance from 1535) Zgodovinski časopis: Kosov zbornik 6–7 (1952–53): 566–587, at 567, 577.
52 Deren von Laibach Malefitzfreyhaittn (Ljubljana, 1514), fol. 5v–6r.
53 Des Herzogthumbs Crainn, vnd der angeraichten Herrschafftn vnd Graffschafften der Windischen March, Meetling, Ysterreich, vnd Karst, Lanndtgerichtß-Ordnung ([Vienna], 1535), http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/ferdinand1535, 5–7.
54 Des Löblichen Fürstenthumbs Steyer Landt: vnd peindliche Gerichts Ordnung, Im M. D. LXXIIII. Jahr verbessert, erleüttert, verglichen, vnd auffgericht (Graz, 1574), I § 23, fol. 7r.
55 Hans Obermair, “How to Record a Conflict? The Communities of the German Part of the Diocese of Trent during the Late Middle Ages,” in Communities and conflicts in the Alps from the Late Middle Ages to Early Modernity, ed. Marco Bellabarba, Hans Obermair, and Hitomi Sato (Bologna, 2015), 101–18, at 108–11. The main collections of medieval and early modern Weistümer for Styria and Carinthia are Steirische und Kärnthische Taidinge, ed. Ferdinand Bischoff and Anton Schönbach (Wien, 1881) and Steirische Taidinge (Nachträge), ed. Anton Mell and Eugen Müller (Wien, 1913). The Weistümer for Carniola were collected, but never collectively published; my thanks to Borut Holcman for this information.
56 Oman, Maščevanje na Slovenskem, 61–66, 104–9.
57 Steirische und Kärnthische Taidinge, 7, 12.
58 Solle alle aigennüzigkait, auch haß, neid und zwitracht so wider gott und die christliche lieb des negsten ist eingestelt und als vil müglich verhüet, dagegen der gemaine nuz und alle guete nachperliche ainigkait gepflanzt und gefürdert werden. Ibid., 502–3.
59 Steirische Taidinge, 12.
60 Žiga Oman, “Enmity After the Feud: Violence and Its Control in Inner Austria, 1500–1750,” Acta Histriae 31, no. 4 (2023): 529–86, at 572–73.
61 The essential study on securities in the control of enmity, albeit focusing on Italy, is Broggio, Governare l’odio.
62 Andreas Blauert, Das Urfehdewesen im deutschen Südwesten im Spätmittelalter und in der Frühen Neuzeit (Tübingen, 2000), 13–21.
63 StLA, Archiv Stubenberg, Familie (hereafter Stubenberg), K.97/H.616, Urfehdebriefe, 1484–1633, 29 May 1555.
64 StLA, Stubenberg, K.97/H.616, Urfehdebriefe 1484–1633; StLA, Stubenberg, K.102/H.625, Urfehdebriefe 1513–1708.
65 Kärntner Landesarchiv (hereafter KLA), Arnoldstein, Kloster und Herrschaft (hereafter Arnoldstein), Stift Arnoldstein I (Criminalia), Fasz. 52, XXV.1–9.
66 KLA, Wolfsberg, Herrschaft, Urfehdebriefe 1399–1597.
67 See Broggio, “Narrazioni della vendetta” for this process.
68 Škrubej, “Courtroom oaths,” 216–24.
69 August Dimitz, Geschichte Krains von der ältesten Zeit bis auf das Jahr 1813: mit besonderer Rücksicht auf Kulturentwicklung. Teil 2: Vom Regierungsantritte Maximilians I. (1493) bis zum Tode Kaiser Ferdinands I. (1564) (Ljubljana, 1875), 69.
70 Oman, Maščevanje na Slovenskem, 112–17. Furthermore, from the late 1500s, duels became a new important avenue for redressing grievances among the Inner Austrian elite. Grahornik, Matjaž, “Duelling in the Habsburg Hereditary Lands, 1600–1750: Between Law and Practice,” Acta Histriae 31, no. 4 (2023): 707–42.Google Scholar
71 Oman, Žiga, “Will auss der Vnordnung nit Schreitten: A Case of Fehde from 17th Century Styria,” Acta Histriae 24, no. 1 (2016): 63–100.Google Scholar
72 Unless an enemy with influential allies was killed in a feud without justifiable cause, executions of noblemen for feuding in the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century empire were rare. Carroll, Enmity and Violence, 145 ff.
73 LJU 488, Cod. I/6 (1547–1548), fol. 99v, 27 April 1548.
74 Pokrajinski arhiv Maribor, Gospoščina Negova (1543–1941), Bergtaiding register 1610–24, 13–14. (Maribor Regional Archives, Lordship of Negova.)
75 AS 721, Kn. 17 (1632–36), 1 December 1634.
76 Also meaning: quarrel, animosity, enmity. See https://www.dwds.de/wb/dwb/widerwärtigkeit, 1a–b.
77 AS 721, Kn. 21 (1655–62), 7 April 1657.
78 AS 721, Kn. 19 (1644–51), 728–9, 29 August 1647.
79 AS 721, Kn. 19 (1644–51), 388–90, 15 May 1646.
80 StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.341, Provincial court register 1656–88, fol. 39v–40v, 7 October 1660.
81 StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.341, Provincial court register 1656–88, fol. 51r–v, 3 November 1662.
82 StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.341, Provincial court register 1656–88, fol. 75r–v, 2 March 1668.
83 StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.341, Provincial court register 1656–88, fol. 75r–v, 5 May 1677.
84 KLA, Arnoldstein, Criminalia, Fasz. 53, XXV.51, 1665 [before 14 November].
85 StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.341, Provincial court register 1656–88, fol. 102r–103r, 5 September 1671; fol. 115r, 3 January 1674.
86 StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.342, Provincial court register 1706–23, fol. 59r–v, 24 May 1721.
87 Carroll, Enmity and Violence, 202.
88 StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.342, Provincial court register 1706–23, fol. 70v, 14 November 1722.
89 StLA, Rothenfels, K.108/H.343, Provincial court register 1723–43, fol. 23r, 22 September 1731.
90 Janko Polec, Križnikovi odgovori na vprašanja v Bogišićevem “Naputku” (Križnik’s Answers to Questions in Bogišić’s “Instructions”) (Ljubljana, 1945), 47, 50.
91 StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.341, Provincial court register 1656–88; StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.342, Provincial court register 1706–23; StLA, Rothenfels, K.108/H.343, Provincial court register 1723–43.
92 KLA, Dietrichstein, Landskron and Velden, Provincial court register 1651–57; KLA, Dietrichstein, Landskron and Velden, Provincial court register 1752–60.
93 A total of 123 registers survive from 1521–1786. They are also available online: https://www.zal-lj.si/project/zapisniki-ljubljanskega-mestnega-sveta/. At the time this article was finished, they were available up until 1671.
94 LJU 488, Cod. I/7 (1548–49), fol. 163v–164r, 17 June 1549; ibid., fol. 180v, 19 July 1549.
95 LJU 488, Cod. I/27 (1651), fol. 198v, 18 August 1651.
96 LJU 488, Cod. I/30 (1659), f. 99v, 23 May 1659; ibid., fol. 108r, 9 June 1659.
97 LJU 488, Cod. I/24 (1616), fol. 163v–164v, 18 July 1616.
98 Smail, “Hatred as a Social Institution,” 126.
99 LJU 488, Cod. I/24 (1616), fol. 240v–241r, 19 September 1616.
100 StLA, Innerösterreichische Regierung, Cop. Protocol 1642, K and P, November, no. 90.
101 LJU 488, Cod. I/15 (1594), fol. 168r–169r, 8 November 1594.
102 LJU 488, Cod. I/25 (1633–35), fol. 135v–136r, 21 July 1634.
103 LJU 488, Cod. I/18 (1601–2), fol. 235r–v, 4 January 1602; ibid., fol. 240r–242r, 7 January 1602; ibid., fol. 318r, 7 June 1602.
104 Oman, Maščevanje na Slovenskem, 106.
105 On emotions and violence in the early modern period see, e.g., Susan Broomhall and Sarah Finn, eds., Violence and Emotions in Early Modern Europe (London, 2015); Claudio Povolo, Furore. Elaborazione di un’emozione nella seconda metà del Cinquecento (Sommacampagna, 2015); and for the Middle Ages, Daniel L. Smail, The Consumption of Justice: Emotions, Publicity and Legal Culture in Marseille, 1264–1423 (Ithaca, 2003); Susanna A. Throop and Paul R. Hyams, eds., Vengeance in the Middle Ages: Emotion, Religion and Feud (Farnham, 2010).
106 See, for example, Wierzbicka, Anna, “Defining Emotion Concepts,” Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal 16, no. 4 (1992): 539–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rosenwein, Barbara H., “Problems and Methods in the History of Emotions,” Passions in Context: Journal of the History and Philosophy of the Emotions 1, no. 1 (2010): 1–32.Google Scholar
107 John Bossy, Christianity in the West 1400–1700 (Oxford, 1985), 35–36; Stephen D. White, “The Politics of Anger,” in Anger’s Past: The Social Uses of an Emotion in the Middle Ages, ed. Barbara H. Rosenwein (Ithaca, 1998), 127–52, at 138, 142.
108 Dixon, Thomas, “What is the History of Anger a History of?” Emotions: History, Culture, Society 4 (2020), 1–34, at 10–22Google Scholar.
109 Broggio, “Narrazioni della vendetta,” 47–50.
110 Povolo, Claudio, “La pietra del bando: vendetta e banditismo in Europa tra Cinque e Seicento,” Acta Histriae 25, no. 1 (2017): 21–56, at 29–31Google Scholar; Susanne Pohl-Zucker (2018): “Hot Anger and Just Indignation: Justificatory Strategies in Early Modern German Homicide Trials,” in Emotion, Violence, Vengeance and Law in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honour of William Ian Miller, ed. Kate Gilbert and Stephen D. White (Leiden, 2018), 25–48, at 28–29.
111 Smail, “Hatred as a Social Institution,” 100–1.
112 KLA, Dietrichstein, Landskron and Velden, Provincial court register 1651–57, fol. 185v–186v, 15 February 1655; ibid., fol. 282v–284r, 5 January 1657.
113 StLA, Rothenfels, K.108/H.343, Provincial court register 1723–43, fol. 44v, 20 September 1738.
114 StLA, Landrecht, K.723/H.2, Main evidence of Baron Ferdinand Miglio regarding Johann Christoph Pilpach’s lawsuit from 26 October 1681, sine dato, sine loco.
115 LJU 488, Cod. I/18 (1601–2), fol. 196v–197r, 5 November 1601; ibid., fol. 277r–v, 11 March 1602.
116 Dušan Kos, Zgodovina morale: 1. Ljubezen in zakonska zveza na Slovenskem med srednjim vekom in meščansko dobo (The History of Morality: 1. Love and Matrimony in the Slovene Lands between the Middle Ages and the Bourgeois Era) (Ljubljana, 2015), 161, note 438. My thanks to the author for letting me know which word was used in the source material.
117 Vizitacijski zapisniki goriškega nadškofa Karla Mihaela grofa Attemsa 1752–1774, (Visitation Registers of the Archbishop of Gorizia, Karl Michael count Attems 1752–1774) ed. Jure Volčjak (Ljubljana, 2023), 71, 683.
118 Amy Nelson Burnett, “The Social History of Communion and the Reformation of the Eucharist,” Past and Present 211 (2011): 77–119, at 82. For examples from the early modern Holy Roman Empire see David W. Sabean, Power in the Blood, chapter 1; Carroll, Enmity and Violence, chapters 7 and 13.
119 KLA, Dietrichstein, Landskron and Velden, Provincial court register 1651–57, fol. 89r, 12 September 1655.
120 StLA, Rothenfels, K.107/H.342, Provincial court register 1706–23, fol. 20r, 8 October 1710.
121 White, “The Politics of Anger,” 146.
122 Mark 12:31; Matthew 5:44.