Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T13:39:04.186Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

From Persecution to Pragmatism: The Habsburg Roma in the Eighteenth Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2009

David M. Crowe
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

In many ways, the habsburg roma, or Gypsies, are a “people without history.”1 Given their nomadic existence, they left little or no imprint on the political, economic, and cultural institutions of the various dominions through which they passed. Even such staples of social historians as birth, death, and census records, land and tax registers, court transcripts, and popular newspapers bear little witness to their presence and impact. Not surprisingly, successive regimes in Vienna and other centers of power had little interest in a people who dwelled permanently only on the lower rungs of society. The Roma also had no corporate or national agenda. Although some did participate on the edges of various nineteenth-century national movements, they did so only marginally and often as Hungarians, Romanians, or Slovaks, rather than as representatives of the Roma community. Much of what we know comes not from the people themselves, but from the observations of non-Roma or gadžé (singular, gadžo; plural, gadžé or gadjé), whose accounts were often riddled with the kinds of cultural overlays and stereotypes that have haunted the Roma for centuries.

Type
Articles
Information
Austrian History Yearbook , Volume 37 , January 2006 , pp. 99 - 120
Copyright
Copyright © Center for Austrian Studies, University of Minnesota 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Traditionally, the Roma have been treated as a monolithic ethnic group. While it is certainly appropriate to refer generally to this diverse group as Roma or Romani, they are also known by other names in different countries in Europe. These names are often based on geography or traditional occupations. While most Roma groups share some common linguistic and cultural characteristics, there are often more differences than similarities between such groups. Some of the more prominent Roma tribes in Central and Eastern Europe are the Vlach (Wallachia), the Kalderasá (coppersmiths), the Kovači (blacksmiths), the Čurari (sieve makers), the Aurarí (gold washers), the Rudari (miners), the Ursari (bear leaders), and the Lingurari (spoon makers). These various tribes are subdivided into clans, whose names come from an ancestor, an animal, or an object of respect.Google ScholarDavid M., Crowe, “Roma: The Gypsies,” in Encyclopedia of European Social History from 1350 to 2000, ed. Peter N., Stearns (Detroit, 2000), 451–52.Google Scholar

2 Ibid.., 449.

3 Kann, Robert A. and David, Zdenek V., The Peoples of the Eastern Habsburg Lands, 1526–1918 (Seattle, 1984), 23.Google Scholar

4 Vickers, Robert H., History of Bohemia (Chicago, 1894), 125.Google Scholar

5 Ibid.; Monroe, Will S., Bohemia and the Cechs (Boston, 1910), 27.Google Scholar

6 Emilia, Horváthová, Cigáni na Slovensku [Gypsies in Slovakia] (Bratislava, 1964), 33Google Scholar; Mann, S. E., “Emília Horváthova's Cigáni po prichode do Europy” [Gypsies after their arrival in Europe], Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society (hereafter cited as JGLS), 3rd sen, 63, nos. 1–2 (1964): 69Google Scholar; László, Makkai, “Transformation into a Western-Type State, 1196–1301,” in A History of Hungary, ed. Sugár, Péter F., Peter, Hanak, and Tibor, Frank (Bloomington, 1990), 26–27Google Scholar; Gyorgy, Balazs and Karoly, Szeleyni, The Magyars: The Birth of a European Nation (Budapest, 1989), 62, 80–81Google Scholar; Crowe, David M., “The Liuli (Gypsies) of Central Asia,” Association for the Advancement of Central Asian Research Bulletin 6, no. 1 (1993): 2.Google Scholar

7 Angus, Fraser, The Gypsies (Oxford, 1992), 60–61.Google Scholar

8 “Cigáni, ,” Encyklopedia Slovenska [Slovakian encyclopedia], vol. 1 (Bratislava, 1977-1982), 320Google Scholar; Pal, Engel, “The Age of the Angevines, 1301–1382,” in History of Hungary, ed. Sugar, Hanák, and Frank, , 48–49Google Scholar; Willy, Guy, “Ways of Looking at Roms: The Case of Czechoslovakia,” in Gypsies, Tinkers and Other Travellers, ed. Farnham, Rehfisch (New York, 1975), 208Google Scholar; Eva, Davidóva, “The Gypsies of Czechoslovakia. Part I: Main Characteristics and Brief Historical Development,” trans.D.E.Guy, JGLS, 3rd sen, 69, nos. 3–4 (1970): 88.Google Scholar

9 Tatomir, Vukanovic, Romi (Tsigani) u Jugoslaviji [Gypsies in Yugoslavia] (Vranje, 1983), 23Google Scholar; Milenko, Filipovic, “Visocki Cigani” [High Gypsies], Etnoloska Biblioteka [Ethnological library], vol. 16 (Zagreb, 1932), 3Google Scholar; Soulis, George C., “The Gypsies in the Byzantine Empire and the Balkans in the Late Middle Ages,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 15 (1961): 161CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bachich, Willy A., “Maritime History of the Eastern Adriatic,” in Croatia: Land, People, Culture, ed. Eterovich, Francis H. and Christopher, Spalatin, vol. 2 (Toronto, 1970), 127Google Scholar; László, Makkai, “The Foundation of the Hungarian Christian State, 950–1196,” in History of Hungary, ed. Sugar, Hanak, and Frank, , 19Google Scholar; Balázs, and Szeléyni, , The Magyars, 37Google Scholar; Fred, Singleton, A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples (Cambridge, 1989), 29Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 60–61Google Scholar; Jószef, Vekerdi, “Earliest Arrival Evidence on Gypsies in Hungary,” JGLS, 4th ser., 1, no. 2 (1976): 170–71Google Scholar; Miklos, Tomka, “Die Zigeuner in der Ungarischen Gesellschaft,” East European Quarterly 4, no.1 (1970): 3Google Scholar; László, Siklós, “The Gypsies,” The New Hungarian Quarterly 9, no. 40 (1970): 150Google Scholar; Sigismund became Holy Roman Emperor in 1410 and King of Bohemia in 1420. Denis, Sinor, History of Hungary (Westport, 1976), 60–103, passim.Google Scholar

10 Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 88. Davidóva places Rozmberk (Rózyhegy) in Bohemia, though it is possible she meant Ruzomberok, which lies at the foot of the High Tatras in Slovakia.Google Scholar

11 Ibid.; Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 205–6Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 63, 75–76Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 37–38.Google Scholar

12 János, Bak, “The Late Medieval Period, 1382–1526,” in History of Hungary, ed. Sugar, Hanák, and Frank, , 79Google Scholar; Ferenc, Szakály, “The Early Ottoman Period, Including Royal Hungary, 1526–1606,” in History of Hungary, ed. Sugar, Hanák, and Frank, , 84Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 111Google Scholar; Seton-Watson, R. W., A History of the Czechs and Slovaks (Hamden, 1965), 86Google Scholar; Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 208Google Scholar; Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 89Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 99–100.Google Scholar

13 Bak, , “Late Medieval Period,” 82.Google Scholar

14 Crowe, David M., A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia (New York, 1994), 71.Google Scholar

15 Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 89.Google Scholar

16 Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 208Google Scholar; Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 89Google Scholar; Kann, and David, , Peoples of the Eastern Habsburg Lands, 72–73Google Scholar; Szakály, , “Early Ottoman Period,” 84–85.Google Scholar

17 Charles, Ingrao, The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815 (Cambridge, 1994), 3–5Google Scholar; Kann, Robert A., A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918 (New York, 1992 [1974]), 8–10.Google Scholar

18 Fraser, , Gypsies, 100.Google Scholar

19 Kann, , History of the Habsburg Empire, 10.Google Scholar

20 Fraser, , Gypsies, 105–6.Google Scholar

21 Jean-Pierre, Liégois, Gypsies: An Illustrated History, trans. Tony Berrett (London, 1986), 105–6.Google Scholar

22 Fraser, , Gypsies, 110.Google Scholar

23 Ibid.,61, 109–11; Bak, , “Late Medieval Period,” 76–77, 79Google Scholar; Dr. István, Hoóz, “Census Relative to Gipsy Population in the 18th and 19th Centuries,” in A Magyarországban Czigányösszeirás Eredményei: 1893 januar 31-én végrehajtott [The results of the Hungarian Gypsy census: 31 January 1893] (Budapest, 1893), 19, 21nlGoogle Scholar; Will, Durant, The Renaissance:A History of Civilization in Italy from 1304–1576 A.D. (New York, 1953), 365–67Google Scholar; Szakály, , “Early Ottoman Period,” 83–84Google Scholar; Seton-Watson, , History of the Czechs and Slovaks, 86Google Scholar; Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 208Google Scholar; Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 89Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 99–100.Google Scholar

24 Bak, , “Late Medieval Period,” 81–82Google Scholar; Szakály, , “Early Ottoman Period,” 84–85.Google Scholar

25 Charles V ceded his Austrian territories to Ferdinand in 1521. Kann, , History of the Habsburg Empire, 21–22Google Scholar; Mamatey, Victor S., Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1815 (New York, 1971), 32–33Google Scholar; Stanford, Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808 (Cambridge, 1976), 101–2Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 156.Google Scholar

26 Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 208Google Scholar; Davidólva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 89Google Scholar; Kann, and David, , Peoples of the Eastern Habsburg Lands, 72–73Google Scholar; Szakály, , “Early Ottoman Period,” 84–85Google Scholar; Mamatey, , Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 32–33Google Scholar; Shaw, , Empire of the Gazis, 101–2Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 111, 156.Google Scholar

27 Fraser, , Gypsies, 112Google Scholar; Joseph, Kalvoda, “The Gypsies of Czechoslovakia,” in The Gypsies of Eastern Europe, ed. David, Crowe and John, Kolsti (Armonk, 1991), 94Google Scholar; Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 89Google Scholar; Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 206Google Scholar; “Cigani,” 321Google Scholar; Kann, , History of the Habsburg Empire, 32.Google Scholar

28 Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 206Google Scholar; Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 89–90Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Siovensku, 58–59.Google Scholar

29 Mamatey, , Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 49–50Google Scholar; Seton-Watson, , History of the Czechs and Slovaks, 107–8.Google Scholar

30 Fraser, , Gypsies, 156–57.Google Scholar

31 Ibid.; Hoóz, , “Census Relative to Gipsy Population in Hungary,” 21nl.Google Scholar

32 Katalin, Peter, “The Later Ottoman Period and Royal Hungary, 1606–1711,” in History of Hungary, ed. Sugar, Hanák, and Frank, , 102–3.Google Scholar

33 Kann, and David, , Peoples of the Eastern Habsburg Lands, 117Google Scholar; Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 206–9Google Scholar; Davidóva, , “Gypsies of Czechoslovakia,” 89–90Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Siovensku, 60Google Scholar; Hoóz, , “Census Relative to Gipsy Population in Hungary,” 19.Google Scholar

34 James Van, Horn Melton, “Introduction: Government and the People during the Aufklärung” in State and Society in Early Modern Austria, ed. Ingrao, Charles W. (West Lafayette, 1994), 229.Google Scholar

35 Ingrao, , Habsburg Monarchy, 91–93Google Scholar; Hermann, Rebel, “Reimagining the Oikos: Austrian Cameralism in Its Social formation,” in Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History, ed. Jay, ÓBrien and William, Roseberry (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991), 55–56, 64–69;Google Scholar for a complete look at the life of Hörnigk and his impact on seventeenth- and eighteenth-century cameralist thought, see Heinz-Joachim, Brauleke, Leben und Werk des kameralisten Philipp Wilhelm von Hornigk: Versuch einer wissenschaftlichen Biographie (Frankfurt am Main, 1978).Google Scholar

36 Hungary was devastated by the Turkish wars and “forced migration [much of it caused by Austrian forces] destroyed the traditional social bonds of peasant communities.” Spielman, John P., Leopold I of Austria (New Brunswick, 1977), 130Google Scholar; Kann, , History of the Habsburg Empire, 64–66Google Scholar; Mamatey, , Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 69–78.Google Scholar

37 Bernard, Paul P., “Poverty and Poor Relief in the Eighteenth Century,” in State and Society, ed. Ingrao, , 241.Google Scholar

38 O., Van Kappen, “A Prague Edict against the Gypsies (1710),” JGLS, 3rd sen, 62, nos.3–4 (1963): 118–19.Google Scholar

39 Ibid..

40 Ibid..; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, p.60Google Scholar; Ingrao, , Habsburg Monarchy, 110–17Google Scholar; Péter, , “Later Ottoman Period,” 118–19.Google Scholar

41 Kappen, , “Prague Edict,” 119.Google Scholar

42 Ibid.., 119–21; Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 207Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 60–61Google Scholar; for more on the Gypsy warning signs in Germany, see Richard, Andree, “Old Warning-Placards for Gypsies,” JGLS, new ser.,5, no.3 (1911-1912): 202–4.Google Scholar

43 Kappen, , “Prague Edict,” 121.Google Scholar

44 Mamatey, , Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 91.Google Scholar

45 Ingrao, , Habsburg Monarchy, 129.Google Scholar

46 Horst, Haselsteiner, “Cooperation and Confrontation between rulers and the Noble Estates, 1711–1790,” in History of Hungary, ed. Sugar, Hanák, and Frank, , 144–45Google Scholar. According to Charles Ingrao, Croatia had actually indicated its willingness to accept a female Habsburg ruler in 1712, a year before the Pragmatic Sanction was issued. Ingrao, , Habsburg Monarchy, 134.Google Scholar

47 Ingrao, , Habsburg Monarchy, 132–33.Google Scholar

48 Haselsteiner, , “Cooperation and Confrontation,” 142–43.Google Scholar

49 Szabo, Franz A. J., Kaunitz and Enlightened Absolutism, 1753–1780 (Cambridge, 1994), 336–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; for colonization efforts during the reign of Maria Theresa, see Gustav, Otruba, Die Wirtschaftspolitik Maria Theresias (Vienna, 1963), 170–78.Google Scholar

50 Haselsteiner, , “Cooperation and Confrontation,” 142–43.Google Scholar

51 Ingrao, , Habsburg Monarchy, 135.Google Scholar

52 Haselsteiner, , “Cooperation and Confrontation,” 138–41Google Scholar; Mamatey, , Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 90–91, 94–95.Google Scholar

53 Ingrao, , Habsburg Empire, 92, 137–38.Google Scholar

54 Ibid.., 135–36.

55 Hoóz, , “Census Relative to Gipsy Population in Hungary,” 19.Google Scholar

56 Ibid..

57 Ibid..

58 Ibid..; Barna, Mezey, László, Pomogyi, and István, Tauber, A magyarországi cigánykérdérdes dokumentumkban, 1422–1985 [Documents on Hungarian Gypsies, 1422–1985] (Budapest, 1986), 81–83Google Scholar; Józef, Hudi, “Adatok Veszprém megye cigányságának a XVIII-XIX. századi történetehez” [Facts on the Gypsies in the 18th and 19th centuries: Historical centuries], in Romológia Kutatóintézet Közlemenyei [Roma Research Institute news], ed. Joszef, Bana and Gyula, Perger (Györ, n.d.), 104Google Scholar; Haselsteiner, , “Cooperation and Confrontation,” 138–41Google Scholar; Mamatey, , Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 90–91, 94–95Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 113–14.Google Scholar

59 Haselsteiner, , “Cooperation and Confrontation,” 138–41Google Scholar; Mamatey, , Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 90–91, 94–95Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 113–14.Google Scholar

60 Zoltán, Zsupos, ed., Az erdélyi sátoros taxás és aranymosó fiskális cigányok a 18. szazában [Nomadic tax-paying and gold-washing Gypsies in Transylvania in the 18th century] (Budapest, 1996), 19, 27Google Scholar. Based on tax records, there were 38,950 Roma in Transylvania in 1772 and another 8,072 in the Banat. See Viorel, Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, trans. Richard Davies (Budapest, 2004), 70. This study was originally published in 1998 in Bucharest as Tiganii în Istoria României. The English edition is a bit more extensive than the original Romanian edition.Google Scholar

61 Good, David F., The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 1750–1914 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1984), 27–28Google Scholar; Ingrao, , Habsburg Empire, 159–60;Google ScholarOtruba, , Wirtschaftspolitik Maria Theresias, 21–22.Google Scholar

62 Zsupos, , Az erdélyi sátoros taxás és aranymosó fiskális cigányok, 19,, 25–26, 323–30Google Scholar; Kann, , History of the Habsburg Empire, 120Google Scholar; for more on Maria Theresas mining policies, see Otruba, , Wirtschaftspolitik Maria Theresias, 51–60.Google Scholar

63 Zsupos, , Az erdélyi sátoros taxás és aranymosó fiskális cigányok, 25.Google Scholar

64 Ibid., 25–26.

65 Ibid., 19, 25–27, 331–36. In 1747, the government had decreed that the gold-washing Roma had to register with the Office of the Gold Exchange.

66 Ibid., 23.

67 Ibid., 23–24.

68 Ibid., 20, 22–23.

69 Ibid., 20–21; Ian, Hancock, The Pariah Syndrome (Ann Arbor, 1987), 16–17.Google Scholar

70 Mezey, , Pomogyi, , and Tauber, , A magyarországi cigánykérdérdes dokumentumkban, 89Google Scholar; Zsupos, , Az erdélyi sátoros taxás és aranymosó fiskális cigányok, 21–22.Google Scholar

71 Zsupos, , Az erdélyi sátoros taxás és aranymosó fiskális cigányok, 19, 22.Google Scholar

72 Fraser, , Gypsies, 157.Google Scholar

73 Bernard, , “Poverty and Poor Relief,” 242–43.Google Scholar

74 Seton-, Watson, History of the Czechs and Slovaks, 142–43;Google ScholarMamatey, , Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 104–6Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 61,113Google Scholar; Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 90.Google Scholar

75 Fraser, , Gypsies, 157.Google Scholar

76 Ibid., 157–58,195; Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 90Google Scholar; Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 209Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 114Google Scholar; Mamatey, , Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 104–6.Google Scholar

77 Schwicker, J. H., Die Zigeuner in Ungarn und Siebenbürgen (Vienna, 1883), 54Google Scholar; Joseph became Holy Roman Emperor in 1764, a year before the death of his father, Francis Stephen. Derek, Beales, Joseph II, vol. 1, In the Shadow of Maria Theresa, 1741–1780 (Cambridge, 1987), 110–15Google Scholar; Achim, , Roma in Romanian History, 71–72Google Scholar; Crowe, David M., “The Gypsies in Hungary,” in Gypsies of Eastern Europe, ed. Crowe, and Kolsti, , 117Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 158Google Scholar; Davidóva, , “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” 90Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 118–19.Google Scholar

78 Haselsteiner, , “Cooperation and Confrontation,” 152–53Google Scholar; Kann, , History of the Habsburg Empire, 197Google Scholar; Ingrao, , Habsburg Empire, 185–87Google Scholar; Szabo, , Kaunitz and Enlightened Absolutism, 154–55, 159–60Google Scholar; Balász, Evá H., Hungary and the Habsburgs, 1765–1800, trans. Tim Wilkinson (Budapest, 1997), 152–53.Google Scholar For a more thorough look at Habsburg policies toward the peasants at this time, see Brown, James O., “The Family as Process: Family and Economy in Lower Austria, 1788–1848”(PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 1995), 42–45.Google Scholar

79 Hoóz, , “Census Relative to Gipsy Population in Hungary,” 19Google Scholar; Mezey, , Pomogyi, , and Tauber, , A magyarországi cigánykérdérdes dokumentumkban, 84–85Google Scholar; Schwicker, , Zigeuner, 54–55.Google Scholar

80 Achim, , Roma in Romanian History, 72Google Scholar; Haselsteiner, , “Cooperation and Confrontation,” 152–53Google Scholar; Kann, and David, , Peoples of the Eastern Habsburg Lands, 247Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 158–59Google Scholar; Mezey, , Pomogyi, , and Tauber, , A magyarországi cigánykérdérdes dokumentumkban, 84–85Google Scholar; Schwicker, , Zigeuner, 54–55.Google Scholar

81 Achim, , Roma in Romanian History, 72Google Scholar; Schwicker, , Zigeuner, 55–56Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 159Google Scholar; Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 207Google Scholar; Horváthová, , Cigáni na Slovensku, 118–25Google Scholar; Hudi, , “Adatok Veszprém megye cigánysagának a xviii-xix.,” 106–7.Google Scholar

82 Haselsteiner, , “Cooperation and Confrontation,” 150; Szabo, , Kaunitz and Enlightened Absolutism, 225–26, 316, 321–22,324,331.Google Scholar

83 Wim, Willens, In Search of the True Gypsy: From Enlightenment to the Final Solution (London, 1997), 22, 61–63Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 320Google Scholar. Grellmann's work was published in several German, French, English, and Dutch editions between 1783 and 1810.

84 Fraser, , Gypsies, 191–92.Google Scholar

85 Ibid., 192, 195. In terms of caste, Roma in this part of Hungary were divided along sedentary and nomadic lines. Nomadic Rom felt superior to their sedentary cousins.

86 Ibid., 192–93; Willems, , In Search of the True Gypsy, 65.Google Scholar

87 Fraser, , Gypsies, 192–93,195–97.Google Scholar

88 Ingrao, , Habsburg Empire, 197.Google Scholar

89 Ibid.; Hans, Wagner, “The Pension Payments and Legal Claims of Maria Theresa and Their Withdrawal by Joseph II,” in Intellectual and Social Developments in the Habsburg Empire from Maria Theresa to World War I, ed. Winters, Stanley B. and Joseph, Held in collaboration with Istvan Deak and Adam Wandruszka (Boulder, 1975), 5–8.Google Scholar

90 Elke, Josupeit-Neitzel, Die Reformen Josephs II. in Siebenburgen (Munich, 1986), 145–55, 180–84, 234–38, 243–45Google Scholar; Ingrao, , Habsburg Empire, 199, 201–2Google Scholar; Haselsteiner, , “Cooperation and Confrontation,” 159–62Google Scholar; Brown, , “The Family as Process,” 46.Google Scholar

91 Willems, , In Search of the True Gypsy, 26.Google Scholar

92 Ibid.; Mezey, , Pomogyi, , and Tauber, , A magyarországi cigánykérdérdes dokumentumkban, 133–34.Google Scholar

93 Willems, , In Search of the True Gypsy, 26–27.Google Scholar

94 Ibid..

95 Ibid., 27–28.

96 Achim, , Roma in Romanian History, 72.Google Scholar

97 Mezey, , Pomogyi, , and Tauber, , A magyarországi cigánykérdérdes dokumentumkban, 85–94.;Google ScholarIngrao, , Habsburg Empire, 197.Google Scholar

98 Achim, , Roma in Romanian History, 72–73Google Scholar; Mezey, , Pomogyi, , and Tauber, , A magyarországi cigánykérdérdes dokumentumkban, 84–95Google Scholar; Schwicker, , Zigeuner, 56–58.Google Scholar

99 Mezey, , Pomogyi, , and Tauber, , A magyarországi cigánykérdérdes dokumentumkban, 73;Google ScholarAchim, , Roma in Romanian History, 73;Google ScholarSchwicker, , Zigeuner, 56–58.Google Scholar

100 Schwicker, , Zigeuner, 63, 66–70Google Scholar; Hoóz, , “Census Relative to Gipsy Population in Hungary,” 19Google Scholar; Horvathov´, , Cig´ni na Slovensku, 134Google Scholar; Achim, , Roma in Romanian History, 72Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 183Google Scholar; Tomka, , “Die Zigeuner,” 4Google Scholar; Macartney, C. A., The Habsburg Empire, 1789–1918 (London, 1968), 81.Google Scholar

101 Achim, , Roma in Romanian History, 75–76Google Scholar; Guy, , “Ways of Looking at Roms,” 209–10Google Scholar; Fraser, , Gypsies, 159–60.Google Scholar

102 István, Hoóz, “The 1893 Year Gipsy Census,” in A Magyarorsz´gban Czigányösszeir´s Eredményei, 24–27Google Scholar; Tomka, , “Die Zigeuner,” 5.Google Scholar

103 Achim, , Roma in Romanian History, 77–78.Google Scholar