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An Appraisal of the Gulf Cooperation Council's Mechanisms for Co-operation and the Settlement of Disputes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 August 2020

Abdulmalik M. ALTAMIMI Open the ORCID record for Abdulmalik M. ALTAMIMI [Opens in a new window]
Abdulmalik M. ALTAMIMI*
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Independent Researcher [email protected]
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Abstract

This paper aims to provide a comprehensive legal analysis, reminding the reader of the missing roles and potential of the the Gulf Cooperation Council [GCC]. Interstate disputes threaten the very existence of the GCC. Moreover, they call into question the GGC's mechanisms for co-operation and for ensuring the peaceful settlement of disputes. For instance, the GCC's Charter, commercial arbitration rules, and the Basic Law of the Economic Judiciary Commission all provide provisions for peacefully settling disputes between GCC Member States and their citizens. GCC states are also members of the League of Arab States [Arab League], another important regional organization with dispute settlement procedures. However, GCC and Arab League judicial and quasi-judicial mechanisms have not been invoked to date, arguably because the states prefer a diplomatic settlement. This paper reviews the GCC's mechanisms for co-operation and dispute settlement, referencing public international law to formulate recommendations to reform the GCC.

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Asian Journal of International Law , Volume 10 , Issue 2 , July 2020 , pp. 321 - 345
Copyright
Copyright © Asian Journal of International Law, 2020

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Footnotes

*

Yong Pung How Research Fellow (2017–18), School of Law, Singapore Management University.

References

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18. DS567: Saudi Arabia-Measures Concerning the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights.

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27. J.E. PETERSON, “What Makes the Gulf States Endure?” in Kechichian, supra note 23 at 456–7.

28. “The GCC Charter” (adopted 25 May 1981), online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/AboutGCC/Pages/Primarylaw.aspx>.

29. Ibid.

30. “GCC Achievements: Security Cooperation”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CooperationAndAchievements/Achievements/SecurityCooperation/Pages/main.aspx>.

31. “GCC Achievements”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CooperationAndAchievements/Achievements/Pages/Default.aspx>.

32. Ibid.

33. “GCC Security Cooperation”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CooperationAndAchievements/Achievements/SecurityCooperation/Achievements/pages/Home.aspx>.

34. “GCC Breakthrough Security Cooperation (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CooperationAndAchievements/Achievements/SecurityCooperation/Pages/Breakthroughsecuritycooperatio.aspx>.

35. “GCC the Overall Security Strategy (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CooperationAndAchievements/Achievements/SecurityCooperation/Achievements/Pages/Firsttheoverallsecuritystrateg.aspx>.

36. “GCC Cooperation in the Field of Counter-terrorism (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CooperationAndAchievements/Achievements/SecurityCooperation/Achievements/Pages/FourthCooperationinthefieldofc.aspx>.

37. “GCC Security Agreement (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CooperationAndAchievements/Achievements/SecurityCooperation/Achievements/Pages/Secondthesecurityagreement.aspx>.

38. “The Closing Statement of the 35th Session of the Supreme Council, 9 December 2014 (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/Statements/SupremeCouncil/Pages/Thefinalstatementthethirtyfift39.aspx>.

39. “Saudi-Qatari Council Eager to Preserve the Stability of Arab, Muslim Countries” Arab News (3 May 2017), online: Arab News <https://www.arabnews.com/node/1093736/saudi-arabia>.

40. “Press Release Issued by the 104th Session of the Ministerial Council (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/Statements/MinisterialCouncilData/PressReleasesforSessions/Pages/Thepressreleaseofthefourthsess83.aspx>; “Press Release Issued by the 118th Session of the Ministerial Council (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/Statements/MinisterialCouncilData/PressReleasesforSessions/Pages/Thepressreleasefortheeighthses86.aspx>.

41. “Saudi-Qatari Council Reaffirms Using Wisdom in Solving Islamic States Issues” Al-Riyadh (3 May 2017), online: Al-Riyadh (in Arabic) <http://www.alriyadh.com/1590828>.

42. See “GCC Supreme Council statements during 1996 GCC-Qatar and 1999 UAE-Iran dispute over the Islands”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/Statements/SupremeCouncil/Pages/Home.aspx>.

43. “Qatari Forces in Saudi-Led Coalition Return Home” Reuters (7 June 2017), online: Reuters <https://www.reuters.com/article/us-gulf-qatar-alliance/qatari-forces-in-saudi-led-coalition-return-home-idUSKBN18Y2YH>.

44. See GUZANSKY, Yoel, “Defence Cooperation in the Arabian Gulf: The Peninsula Shield Force Put to the Test” (2014) 50 Middle Eastern Studies 640CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45. “The Conclusion of the 10th Joint Peninsula Shield Military Drill” The GCC (9 March 2019), online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/MediaCenter/NewsCooperation/News/Pages/news2019-3-9-1.aspx>.

46. Guzansky, supra note 44 at 641.

47. “Press Release: US and Saudi Arabia to Co-Chair New Terrorist Financing Targeting Center” U.S. Department of the Treasury Office of Public Affairs (21 May 2017), online: The US Embassy in Saudi Arabia <https://sa.usembassy.gov/u-s-saudi-arabia-co-chair-new-terrorist-financing-targeting-center/>.

48. “Press Release: Terrorist Financing Targeting Center Hosts Exercise on Disrupting Illicit Finance” U.S. Department of the Treasury (27 March 2019), online; US Department of Treasury <https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm640>.

49. “The GCC Ministers of Health hold a Meeting via ‘Visual Communication’ to Follow up the Developments on the Coronavirus Covid-19” The GCC (14 March 2020), online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/MediaCenter/NewsCooperation/News/Pages/news2020-3-14-1.aspx>; “The GCC Undersecretaries of the Ministries of Health Hold the 2nd Extraordinary Meeting to Coordinate and Cooperate on the Coronavirus Covid-19 Pandemic” The GCC (21 March 2020), online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/MediaCenter/NewsCooperation/News/Pages/news2020-3-21-1.aspx>. See “Health Council of the Gulf Cooperation Council, About us”, online: The GHC <http://www.ghc.sa/en-us/Pages/whoweare.aspx>.

50. The GCC Charter, supra note 28.

51. “The Basic Law of the CSD (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/CognitiveSources/DigitalLibrary/Lists/DigitalLibrary/%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9%20%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86/1431260342999.pdf>.

52. Ibid.

53. See The GCC Charter, supra note 28; W.M. BALLANTYNE, “The States of the GCC: Sources of Law, the Shari'a and the Extent to Which It Applies” (1985) 1 Arab Law Quarterly 1 at 3.

54. “The GCC 2001 Economic Agreement”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CognitiveSources/DigitalLibrary/Lists/DigitalLibrary/Economy/1274258747.pdf>.

55. See “ASEAN Free Trade Area: Agreements and Declarations”, online: ASEAN <https://asean.org/asean-economic-community/asean-free-trade-area-afta-council/agreements-declarations/>.

56. “The GCC-EEC Cooperation Agreement”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CognitiveSources/DigitalLibrary/Lists/DigitalLibrary/Economy/1274257830.pdf>; “GCC-Singapore F.T.A., Chapter 9: Settlement of Disputes”, online: Enterprise Singapore <https://www.enterprisesg.gov.sg/non-financial-assistance/for-singapore-companies/free-trade-agreements/ftas/singapore-ftas/gsfta>.

57. “GCC Commercial Arbitration Centre's Rules, Article 2”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcccac.org/en/centre-s-rules/centre-s-constitution>.

58. Ibid.

59. “The GCC Basic Law of the Economic Judiciary Commission (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/CognitiveSources/DigitalLibrary/Pages/Details.aspx?itemid=733>.

60. Ibid.

61. Ibid.

62. “The Arab League also has settlement procedures for administrative and foreign investment law disputes”, online: The Arab League <http://www.lasportal.org/Pages/Welcome.aspx>.

63. The UN Charter, chapter VI, supra note 2.

64. “Press Release Issued by the 71st Session of the Ministerial Council (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/Statements/MinisterialCouncilData/PressReleasesforSessions/Pages/Thepressreleaseissuedbytheseve50.aspx>.

65. “The Closing Statement of 21st Session of the GCC Supreme Council”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CognitiveSources/DigitalLibrary/Lists/DigitalLibrary/The%20GCC%20Process%20and%20achievement/1274260674.pdf>.

66. Ulrichsen, supra note 24 at 225.

67. Ibid., at 219.

68. “UAE's Sovereignty over Occupied Islands Reaffirmed” The National (11 April 2016), online: The National <https://www.thenational.ae/uae/government/uae-s-sovereignty-over-occupied-islands-reaffirmed-1.143238>.

69. WIEGAND, Krista, “Bahrain, Qatar, and the Hawar Islands: Resolution of a Gulf Dispute” (2012) 66 Middle East Journal 79 at 80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70. Ibid.

71. “Press Release Issued by the 59th Session of the Ministerial Council (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/Statements/MinisterialCouncilData/PressReleasesforSessions/Pages/Thepressreleaseissuedbythefift41.aspx>.

72. “Overview: Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions Between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain)”, online: The International Court of Justice <http://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/87>.

73. KAMRAVA, Mehran, Qatar: Small State, Big Politics (New York: Cornell University Press, 2013) at 111, 113Google Scholar; FROMHERZ, Allen, Qatar: A Modern History (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2012) at 85, 114Google Scholar.

74. Simeon KERR, “Diplomatic Crisis as Gulf States Withdraw Ambassadors from Qatar” Financial Times (5 March 2014), online: Financial Times <https://www.ft.com/content/5e8103c4-a45b-11e3-9cb0-00144feab7de>.

75. Wiegand, supra note 69.

76. The Basic Law of the CSD (in Arabic), supra note 51; The UN Charter, chapter I, art. 2(4), supra note 2.

77. “Qatar Accuses Sheikh of Ordering Countering Coup” The Irish Times (22 February 1996), online: The Irish Times <https://www.irishtimes.com/news/qatar-accuses-sheikh-of-ordering-countering-coup-1.31303>.

78. Ibid.

79. “The Closing Statement of the 17th Session of the GCC Supreme Council”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CognitiveSources/DigitalLibrary/Lists/DigitalLibrary/The%20GCC%20Process%20and%20achievement/1274260674.pdf>.

80. “The Closing Statement of the 17th Session of the GCC Supreme Council 1997”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/Statements/SupremeCouncil/Pages/EighteenthSession.aspx>.

81. “Press Release Issued by the 62nd Session of the Ministerial Council (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/Statements/MinisterialCouncilData/PressReleasesforSessions/Pages/Thepressreleaseissuedbythesixt43.aspx>.

82. Ibid.

83. Ibid.

84. “Press Release Issued by the 74th Session of the Ministerial Council (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/Statements/MinisterialCouncilData/PressReleasesforSessions/Pages/Pressreleaseissuedbytheseventy52.aspx>.

85. “The Closing Statement of the 19th Session of the GCC Supreme Council”, online: The GCC <http://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/Statements/SupremeCouncil/Pages/NineteenthSession.aspx>.

86. “The Closing Statement of the 23rd Session of the GCC Supreme Council”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CognitiveSources/DigitalLibrary/Lists/DigitalLibrary/The%20GCC%20Process%20and%20achievement/1274260674.pdf>.

87. “The Dolphin Gas Project”, online: Dolphin Energy <http://www.dolphinenergy.com/about>.

88. Mohammed SERGIE, “Qatar, Abu Dhabi Extend Deal for Shared Oil Field Despite Feud” Bloomberg (13 March 2018), online: Bloomberg <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-13/qatar-abu-dhabi-extend-deal-for-shared-oil-field-despite-feud>.

89. Ibid.

90. Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council Under Article 84 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates v. Qatar) [The Riyadh Agreements], online: The International Court of Justice <https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/173/173-20180704-APP-01-01-EN.pdf>.

91. Ibid.

92. Ibid.

93. Ibid.

94. Ibid.

95. Ibid.

96. Ibid.

97. “What are the 13 Demands Given to Qatar?” The Gulf News (23 June 2019), online: The Gulf News <https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/qatar/what-are-the-13-demands-given-to-qatar-1.2048118>.

98. “The Closing Statement of the 18th Session of the GCC Supreme Council 1997”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/CognitiveSources/DigitalLibrary/Lists/DigitalLibrary/The%20GCC%20Process%20and%20achievement/1274260674.pdf>.

99. “The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Chairs the 40th Session of the GCC Supreme Council”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/MediaCenter/NewsCooperation/News/Pages/news2019-12-10-4.aspx>; “The Supreme Council 2017–2018 Statements (in Arabic)”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/ar-sa/Statements/SupremeCouncil/pages/Home.aspx>.

100. For example, from 1 January 2018 until 30 March 2020, there were more than 300 GCC meetings between officials from all the GCC Member States seeking co-operation and co-ordination on regional and global matters. See “GCC News”, online: The GCC <https://www.gcc-sg.org/en-us/MediaCenter/NewsCooperation/News/Pages/Home.aspx>.

101. See KRIEG, Andreas, ed., Divided Gulf: The Anatomy of a Crisis (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

102. “The Saudi-Emirati Coordination Council: Overview”, online: Saudi Ministry of Economy & Planning <https://www.mep.gov.sa/en/Pages/KSA_UAE.aspx>; “UAE-Saudi Coordination Council Holds Follow Up Meeting of Joint Initiatives” Asharq Al-Awsat (13 October 2019), online: Asharq Al-Awsat <https://aawsat.com/english/home/article/1943831/uae-saudi-coordination-council-holds-follow-meeting-joint-initiatives>.

103. See BRUNNÉE, Jutta and TOOPE, Stephen J., Legitimacy and Legality in International Law: An Interactional Account (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) at 122CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104. “Why the Gulf Co-operation Council Cannot Cooperate” The Economist (7 December 2017), online: The Economist <https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21732129-two-day-summit-kuwait-city-broke-up-after-15-minutes-over-qatar-and-more-why>.

105. See MANCE, Lord, “Justiciability” (2018) 67 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 739 at 740CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

106. See “2010 Protocol to the ASEAN Charter on Dispute Settlement Mechanisms (adopted 8 April 2010)”, online: ASEAN <http://agreement.asean.org/media/download/20200128121018.pdf>; “ASEAN-Korea Dispute Settlement Mechanism Agreement under ASEAN-Korea Free Trade Agreement (entered into force 13 December 2005)”, online: ASEAN <https://akfta.asean.org/index.php?page=dispute-settlement-mechanism>.

107. See DS371: Thailand-Customs and Fiscal Measures on Cigarettes from the Philippines; DS477: Indonesia- Importation of Horticultural Products, Animals and Animal Products (New Zealand).

108. See KOH, Tommy, “International Law and the Peaceful Resolution of Disputes: Asian Perspectives, Contributions, and Challenges” (2010) 1 Asian Journal of International Law 57 at 60Google Scholar; Wiegand, supra note 69.

109. LAUTERPACHT, Hersch, The Function of Law in the International Community (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) at 19Google Scholar.

110. The Prosecutor v. Dule, The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, IT-94-AR72, (dated 2 October 1995), online: The UN <https://cld.irmct.org/assets/Uploads/full-text-dec/1995/95-10-02%20Tadic%20Interlocutory%20Decision%20on%20Jurisdiction.pdf>.

111. Ibid., at 11, para. 24, citing Certain Expenses of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, [1962] I.C.J. Rep. 151 at 155.

112. See DESIERTO, Diane, Necessity and National Emergency Clauses: Sovereignty in Modern Treaty Interpretation (Leiden: Brill Nijhoff, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

113. “The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties”, online: The UN <https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201155/volume-1155-I-18232-English.pdf>.

114. The Arab League Charter, supra note 21.

115. For example, in the Mechanism Implementing the Riyadh Agreement, the GCC Member States agreed to a number of provisions relating to their internal affairs, foreign policy, and internal security. Almost all of these provisions start with words explicitly requiring or prohibiting certain conducts; for instance, to not “support any organization” or to “close any centre” that has been designated by the GCC as threatening to their national security. See The Riyadh Agreements, supra note 90.

116. The Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination [CERD] (Qatar v. UAE), online: The ICJ <https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/172>. According to Falk, the quartet's demands are unreasonable and “incompatible with the principles set forth in [the UN] General Assembly Resolution 2625 … that sets forth the principles for lawful and friendly relations among sovereign states, as well as with Article 2 of the UN Charter”, see Richard FALK, “The Gulf Crisis Reassessed” Foreign Policy Journal (14 March 2018), online: Foreign Policy Journal <https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2018/03/14/the-gulf-crisis-reassessed/>. Moreover, Dugard and Schabas said that the quartet's measures were not authorized by the UN Security Council, and “the Draft Articles on State Responsibility of the International Law Commission … conditions for the invocation of these measures are not met in this case as Qatar has committed no internationally wrongful act”, see John DUGARD and William SCHABAS, “The Blockade of Qatar One Year On: Violations of Human Rights and Coercive Measures”, Temple Garden Chambers (5 June 2018) at 4, online: Temple Garden Chambers <https://tgchambers.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Qatar-report.pdf>.

117. Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates v. Qatar, supra note 90; Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council Under Article II, Section 2, of the 1944 International Air Services Transit Agreement (Bahrain, Egypt, and the United Arab Emirates v. Qatar), online: The International Court of Justice <https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/174>.

118. “The UN Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (adopted 2001)”, online: The UN <http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/commentaries/9_6_2001.pdf>. See Appellate Body Report: United States-Transitional Safeguard Measures on Combed Cotton Yearn from Pakistan, para. 120, WT/DS192/AB/R, (adopted 5 November 2001); CRAWFORD, James, State Responsibility: The General Part (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

119. The Riyadh Agreements, supra note 90.

120. The ICJ Statute, chapter II, art. 36(2:c), supra note 6.

121. The Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination [CERD] (Qatar v. UAE), online: The ICJ <https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/172>.

122. Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures of the United Arab Emirates, (22 March 2019), online: The ICJ <https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/172/172-20190322-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf>.

123. Qatar v. United Arab Emirates, Summary of the Order, 23 July 2018, online: The International Court of Justice <https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/172/172-20180723-SUM-01-00-EN.pdf>.

124. Ibid.

125. The ICAO ICJ cases: Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates v. Qatar, supra note 90; Bahrain, Egypt, and the United Arab Emirates v. Qatar, supra note 117.

126. See the GCC WTO disputes, supra note 16.

127. The GATT, art. XXI, online: The WTO <https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/gatt47_02_e.htm#articleXXI>.

128. Ibid.

129. Diane DESIERTO, “Protean ‘National Security’ in Global Trade Wars, Investment Walls, and Regulatory Controls: Can ‘National Security’ Ever be Unreviewable in International Economic Law?” EJIL: Talk (2 April 2018), online: EJIL: Talk <https://www.ejiltalk.org/national-security-defenses-in-trade-wars-and-investment-walls-us-v-china-and-eu-v-us/> (emphasis in original).

130. Ibid.

131. “Qatar Seeks WTO Panel Review of UAE Measures on Good, Services, IP rights” WTO News (23 October 2017), online: The WTO <https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news17_e/dsb_23oct17_e.htm>.

132. Ibid.

133. Ibid.

134. Gerhard ERASMUS, “What Does the National Security Exception in GATT Mean?” TralacBlog (11 July 2019), online: TralacBlog <https://www.tralac.org/blog/article/14151-what-does-the-national-security-exception-in-gatt-mean.html> citing DS512: Russia-Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit.

135. Ibid.

136. Panel Report: Russia-Traffic in Transit, WT/DS512/R, para. 7.108 (adopted 26 April 2019).

137. Ibid.

138. DS526: United Arab Emirates-Goods, Services, and IP Rights.

139. “The WTO DSU”, online: The WTO <https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dsu_e.htm>.

140. “UAE Concludes WTO Dispute Following Qatar's Withdrawal of Discriminatory Measures” The UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs & International Cooperation: News (8 August 2019), online: The UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs & International Cooperation <https://www.mofaic.gov.ae/MediaHub/News/2019/8/8/08-08-2019-uae-qatar>.

141. “The GATT Article XXIV”, online: The WTO <https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/gatt47_02_e.htm#articleXXIV>.