Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T20:14:12.048Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Broken Boundaries: Border and Identity Formation in Post-Colonial Punjab

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 July 2020

Vanshaj Ravi JAIN Open the ORCID record for Vanshaj Ravi JAIN [Opens in a new window]
Vanshaj Ravi JAIN*
Affiliation:
University of Oxford, United [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The study of uti possidetis in international law has proceeded without any detailed examination of its application to South Asian borders. Yet, the consequences of uti possidetis in the Indian subcontinent offer critical insight into the legal and functional critique levied against the doctrine. The South Asian experience provides evidence that uti possidetis cannot be considered a norm of regional customary international law, confined to Latin America and Africa. Simultaneously, it provides compelling proof of this doctrine's ruinous impact on self-determination, pointing to its potential for identity-alteration and intrastate violence: consequences that have received scarce attention in legal scholarship. By undertaking a detailed study of the Radcliffe Line in Punjab, this paper makes a prudent attempt to commence filling this gap in the literature by re-centring South Asia in the debate on uti possidetis.

Type
Articles
Information
Asian Journal of International Law , Volume 10 , Issue 2 , July 2020 , pp. 261 - 292
Copyright
Copyright © Asian Journal of International Law, 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Advocate and Solicitor (India). DPhil Candidate, Faculty of Law, University of Oxford.

References

1. ARENDT, Hannah, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Meridian Books, 1951) at 294Google Scholar.

2. HADDAD, Emma, The Refugee in International Society: Between Sovereigns (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008)Google Scholar.

3. Ibid., at 59.

4. ZOLBERG, Aristide R., “The Formation of New States as a Refugee Generating Process” (1983) 467 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5. SHAW, Malcom N., “The Heritage of States: The Principle of Uti Possidetis Juris Today” (1996) 67 British Yearbook of International Law 75Google Scholar.

6. PELLET, Alain, “The Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee: A Second Breath for the Self-Determination of Peoples” (1992) 3 European Journal of International Law 178CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7. CASTELLINO, Joshua and ALLEN, Steve, Title to Territory in International Law: A Temporal Analysis (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003)Google Scholar.

8. CHATTERJI, Joya, “The Fashioning of a Frontier: The Radcliffe Line and Bengal's Border Landscape, 1947–52” (1999) 33 Modern Asian Studies 185CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9. CHESTER, Lucy P., Borders and Conflict in South Asia: The Radcliffe Boundary Commission and the Partition of Punjab (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

10. MANSERGH, Nicholas, LUMBY, Esmond W. R., and MOON, Penderel, eds., The Transfer of Power 1942–47 (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1983)Google Scholar.

11. CARR, Edward H., What is History? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961)Google Scholar.

12. Shaw, supra note 5 at 97.

13. Case Concerning the Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso v. Republic of Mali), Judgment [1986] I.C.J. Rep. 554 at 566 [Burkina Faso v. Republic of Mali Judgment].

14. MOORE, John B., Costa Rica-Panama Arbitration: Memorandum on Uti Possidetis (Rosslyn: Commonwealth Co., 1913)Google Scholar.

15. GHEBREWEBET, Helen, Identifying Units of Statehood and Determining International Boundaries: A Revised Look at the Doctrine of Uti Possidetis and the Principle of Self-determination (New York: Peter Lang, 2005)Google Scholar.

16. LALONDE, Suzanne N., Determining Boundaries in a Conflicted World: The Role of Uti Possidetis (Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press, 2002)Google Scholar; RATNER, Steven R., “Drawing a Better Line: Uti Possidetis and the Borders of New States” (1996) 90 American Journal of International Law 590CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17. Ratner, supra note 16.

18. AKWEENDA, Sakeus, International Law and the Protection of Namibia's Territorial Integrity: Boundaries and Territorial Claims (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1997)Google Scholar.

19. MUTUA, Makau, “Why Redraw the Map of Africa: A Moral and Legal Inquiry” (1995) 16 Michigan Journal of International Law 1113Google Scholar.

20. Border Disputes Among African States, OAU Doc. AHG/Res. 16(I) (1964) [Border Disputes Among African States].

21. Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary Between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau (Guinea v. Guinea-Bissau), Award of 14 February 1985, [1985] 77 I.L.R. 635 at 673.

22. Burkina Faso v. Republic of Mali Judgment, supra note 13 at 565.

23. FERGUSON, Niall, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (London: Allen Lane, 2003)Google Scholar; OLSON, James S., Historical Dictionary of the British Empire (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

24. KAIKOBAD, Kaiyan H., “Some Observations on the Doctrine of Continuity and Finality of Boundaries” (1984) 54 British Yearbook of International Law 119CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25. MAHMUD, Tayyab, “Colonial Cartographies, Postcolonial Borders, and Enduring Failures of International Law: The Unending Wars Along the Afghanistan-Pakistan Frontier” (2010) 36 Brooklyn Journal of International Law 1Google Scholar.

26. See Ratner, supra note 16; ANTONOPOULOS, Constantine, “The Principle of Uti Possidetis Iuris in Contemporary International Law” (1996) 49 Revue Hellénique de Droit International 29Google Scholar; CRAWFORD, James, Brownlie's Principles of Public International Law, 8th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; NESI, Giuseppe, “Uti Possidetis Doctrine” in WOLFRUM, Rüdiger, ed., Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), para. 6Google Scholar.

27. The Indo-Pakistan Western Boundary (Rann of Kutch) Case, Award of 19 February 1968, [1968] XVII Reports of International Arbitral Awards 1 at 527.

28. Akweenda, supra note 18.

29. MURPHY, Sean D., “Democratic Legitimacy and the Recognition of States and Governments” (1999) 48 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 545CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30. SARVARIAN, Arman, “Uti Possidetis Iuris in the Twenty-First Century: Consensual or Customary?” (2015) 22 International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 511CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31. Castellino and Allen, supra note 7.

32. BARTOS, Tomas, “Uti Possidetis. Quo Vadis” (1997) 18 Australian Yearbook of International Law 37Google Scholar.

33. Lalonde, supra note 16.

34. PETERS, Anne, “The Principle of ‘Uti Possidetis Juris’: How Relevant is it for Issues of Secession?” in WALTER, Christian, UNGERN-STERNBERG, Antje von, and ABUSHOV, Kavus, eds., Self-Determination and Secession in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), at 112–13Google Scholar.

35. Antonopoulos, supra note 26.

36. Kaikobad, supra note 24.

37. Border Disputes Among African States, supra note 20.

38. Non-Aligned Summit Conference Declaration, IJIL 4 (1964) 610.

39. Shaw, supra note 5.

40. MAZRUI, Ali A., “The African State as a Political Refugee: Institutional Collapse and Human Displacement” (1995) 7 International Journal of Refugee Law 21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

41. Mutua, supra note 19.

42. Mahmud, supra note 25.

43. SAXENA, Jagdish N., Self-determination: From Biafra to Bangla Desh (Delhi: University of Delhi, 1978)Google Scholar.

44. GAYIM, Eyassu, The Eritrean Question (Uppsala: Iustus Förlag, 1993)Google Scholar.

45. KOLODZIEJ, Edward. A., The Great Powers and Genocide: Lessons from Rwanda (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois, 2000)Google Scholar.

46. Bartos, supra note 32.

47. HOUTUM, Henk van, “The Mask of the Border” in WASTL-WALTER, Doris, ed., The Ashgate Research Companion to Border Studies (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), at 50–4Google Scholar.

48. LAMONT, Michéle and MOLNÁR, Virág, “The Study of Boundaries in the Social Sciences” (2002) 28 Annual Review of Sociology 167CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

49. Castellino and Allen, supra note 7.

50. Chatterji, supra note 8.

51. Burkina Faso v. Republic of Mali Judgment, supra note 13 at 565.

52. Castellino and Allen, supra note 7.

53. Peters, supra note 34.

54. Shaw, supra note 5.

55. Bartos, supra note 32.

56. Mazrui, supra note 40.

57. NEUBERGER, Ralph B., National Self-determination in Postcolonial Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1986)Google Scholar.

58. Akweenda, supra note 18.

59. MALANCZUK, Peter, Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law, 7th ed. (New York: Routledge, 1997)Google Scholar.

60. DOMÍNGUEZ, Jorge I., Boundary Disputes in Latin America (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2003)Google Scholar.

61. KACOWICZ, Arie M., “The Problem of Peaceful Territorial Change” (1994) 38 International Studies Quarterly 219CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62. ZACHER, Mark W., “The Territorial Integrity Norm: International Boundaries and the Use of Force” (2001) 55 International Organization 215CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63. Bartos, supra note 32.

64. FRANCK, Thomas M., Fairness in International Law and Institutions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

65. Paul R. HENSEL and Michael E. ALLISON, “The Colonial Legacy and Border Stability: Uti Possidetis and Territorial Claims in the Americas”, Paul R. Hensel (2004), online: <http://paulhensel.org/Research/io05.pdf>.

66. See Bartos, supra note 32; Castellino and Allen, supra note 7.

67. Chester, supra note 9.

68. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), “UNHCR Report on the State of the World's Refugees” (2000), online: UNHCR <https://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9bab0.pdf> [UNHCR Report]; SHAHABUDDIN, Mohammad, “Post-Colonial Boundaries, International Law, and the Making of the Rohingya Crisis in Myanmar” (2019) 9 Asian Journal of International Law 334CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

69. HODSON, Harry V., The Great Divide (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986)Google Scholar.

70. METCALF, Barbara D. and METCALF, Thomas R., A Concise History of India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

71. WHITE-SPUNNER, Barney, Partition: The Story of Indian Independence and the Creation of Pakistan in 1947 (London: Simon & Schuster. 2017)Google Scholar.

72. DAS, Veena, Critical Events: An Anthropological Perspective on Modern India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

73. MOON, Penderel, Divide and Quit: An Eye-Witness Account of the Partition of India (London: Chatto and Windus, 1961)Google Scholar.

74. JALAL, Ayesha, The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75. Yong, TAN Tai and GYANESH, Kudaisya., The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia (London & New York: Routledge, 2001) at 12Google Scholar.

76. TUNZELMANN, Alex V., Indian Summer: The Secret History of the End of an Empire (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2007)Google Scholar.

77. CHESTER, Lucy P., Drawing the Indo-Pakistani Boundary During the 1947 Partition of South Asia (Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest, 2002)Google Scholar.

78. MENON, Vappala P., Transfer of Power in India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79. Chester, supra note 77.

80. Chatterji, supra note 8.

81. KHAN, Yasmin, The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

82. Chester, supra note 77.

83. VIRDEE, Pippa, From the Ashes of 1947: Reimagining Punjab (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84. SINGH, Kirpal, Select Documents on the Partition of Punjab (Delhi: National Bookshop, 1991) at 192Google Scholar.

85. CHESTER, Lucy P., “Boundary Commissions as Tools to Safeguard British Interests at the End of Empire” (2008) 34 Journal of Historical Geography 494CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

86. RAI, Satya, Partition of the Punjab: A Study of its Effects on the Politics and Administration of the Punjab 1947–56 (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1965)Google Scholar.

87. FRENCH, Patrick, Liberty or Death: India's Journey to Independence and Division (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1997) at 321Google Scholar.

88. Yong, TAN Tai, “Sir Cyril Goes to India: Partition, Boundary-Making and Disruptions in the Punjab” (1997) 4 International Journal of Punjab Studies 1Google Scholar.

89. Chester, supra note 77.

90. Ibid., at 76.

91. Mansergh et al., supra note 10.

92. Chester, supra note 77.

93. S. 4(3), The Indian Independence Act, 1947.

94. CHATTERJI, Joya, The Spoils of Partition: Bengal and India, 1947–1967 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

95. Mansergh et al., supra note 10.

96. SPATE, Oskar H.K., On the Margins of History: From the Punjab to Fiji (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

97. MOSLEY, Leonard, The Last Days of the British Raj (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962) at 198Google Scholar.

98. Chester, supra note 9.

99. Tan and Gyanesh, supra note 75.

100. Mansergh et al., supra note 10 at 733.

101. Tan and Gyanesh, supra note 75.

102. Virdee, supra note 83.

103. HEWARD, Edmund, The Great and the Good: A Life of Lord Radcliffe (Chichester: Barry Rose Publishers, 1994)Google Scholar.

104. Mansergh et al., supra note 10.

105. Nesi, supra note 26.

106. Peters, supra note 34.

107. Shaw, supra note 5.

108. Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador v. Honduras: Nicaragua Intervening), Judgment, [1992] I.C.J. Rep. 351.

109. Appendix A, Punjab Boundary Commission Award (1947).

110. Mansergh et al., supra note 10.

111. Appendix A, Punjab Boundary Commission Award (1947).

112. Chester, supra note 9.

113. Chatterji, supra note 94.

114. Mansergh et al., supra note 10 at 856.

115. Shaw, supra note 5.

116. Chester, supra note 77.

117. Ministry of External Affairs, National Archives of India: File No. 3-8/47 OSV (1947) at 7.

118. Akweenda, supra note 18.

119. Lalonde, supra note 16.

120. Bay of Bengal Maritime Boundary Arbitration between Bangladesh and India (Bangladesh v. India), Award of 7 July 2014, [2014] I.C.G.J. 479.

121. Mahmud, supra note 25.

122. HUGGAN, Graham, “Decolonizing the Map: Post-Colonialism, Post-Structuralism and the Cartographic Connection” (1989) 20 A Review of International English Literature 115Google Scholar.

123. HARLEY, John B., The New Nature of Maps: Essays in the History of Cartography (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

124. MADAN, P.L., Indian Cartography: A Historical Perspective (New Delhi: Manohar Publishers and Distributors, 1997)Google Scholar.

125. WOLFFHARDT, Tobias, Unearthing the Past to Forge the Future: Colin Mackenzie, the Early Colonial State and the Comprehensive Survey of India (New York: Berghahn Books, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

126. Ibid.

127. EDNEY, Matthew H., Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

128. Chester, supra note 9.

129. Mosley, supra note 97.

130. Crawford, supra note 26.

131. Ratner, supra note 16.

132. Castellino and Allen, supra note 7.

133. Chatterji, supra note 94.

134. Edney, supra note 127.

135. “Partition of the Punjab” Times of India (19 August 1947) at 7; “Radcliffe Award Announced” Pakistan Times (19 August 1947) at 1.

136. Chester, supra note 77.

137. Mansergh et al., supra note 10.

138. BRASS, Paul R., “The Partition of India and Retributive Genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: Means, Methods, and Purposes” (2003) 5 Journal of Genocide Research 71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

139. Mansergh et al., supra note 10.

140. Chester, supra note 77.

141. THAROOR, Shashi, Inglorious Empire: What the British Did to India (London: C. Hurst & Co., 2016)Google Scholar.

142. Brass, supra note 138.

143. Khan, supra note 81.

144. Virdee, supra note 83.

145. DARLING, Malcolm L., At Freedom's Door (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) at 69Google Scholar.

146. BIGELOW, Anna, “Saved by the Saint: Refusing and Reversing Partition in Muslim North India” (2009) 68 The Journal of Asian Studies 435CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

147. PANDEY, Gyanendra, Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

148. MALHOTRA, Anshu and MIR, Farina, eds., Punjab Reconsidered: History, Culture, and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

149. Virdee, supra note 83.

150. SINGH, Surinder and GAUR, Ishwar D., eds., Sufism in Punjab: Mystics, Literature and Shrines (Delhi: Aakar Books, 2009)Google Scholar.

151. BEDI, Sohinder S., Folklore of the Punjab (New Delhi: National Book Trust, 1971)Google Scholar.

152. MIR, Farina, “Genre and Devotion in Punjabi Popular Narratives” in MALHOTRA, Anshu and MIR, Farina, eds., Punjab Reconsidered: History, Culture, and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), at 221–3Google Scholar.

153. IBBETSON, Denzil C.J., Outlines of Panjab Ethnography: Being Extracts from the Panjab Census Report of 1881, Treating of Race, Language, and Caste (Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1883)Google Scholar.

154. BHASIN-MALIK, Kamaljit, In the Making: Identity Formation in South Asia (New Delhi: Three Essays Collective, 2007)Google Scholar.

155. Edward D. MACLAGAN, “Census of India, Vol. 20” Internet Archive (1891), online: Internet Archive <https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.196109/page/n7>.

156. O'BRIEN, Aubrey, “The Mohammedan Saints of the Western Panjab” (1911) 41 Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 509CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

157. SINGH, Gurharpal and TALBOT, Ian, Punjabi Identity: Continuity and Change (New Delhi: Manohar, 1996)Google Scholar.

158. Bhasin-Malik, supra note 154.

159. Ibbetson, supra note 153 at 101.

160. William DALRYMPLE, “The Great Divide: The Violent Legacy of Indian Partition” The New Yorker (29 June 2015) online: The New Yorker <https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/06/29/the-great-divide-books-dalrymple >.

161. FENECH, Louis E., “The History of the Zafar-namah of Guru Gobind Singh” in MALHOTRA, Anshu and MIR, Farina, eds., Punjab Reconsidered: History, Culture, and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), at 65–74Google Scholar.

162. BUTALIA, Urvashi, The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India (New Delhi: Viking, 1998)Google Scholar.

163. MALHOTRA, Anshu, “Panths and Piety in the Nineteenth Century” in MALHOTRA, Anshu and MIR, Farina, eds., Punjab Reconsidered: History, Culture, and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), at 190–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

164. Singh and Talbot, supra note 157 at 10.

165. Tharoor, supra note 141.

166. ANDERSON, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991)Google Scholar.

167. KAVIRAJ, Sudipta, Religion, Politics and Modernity (Staffordshire: University of Staffordshire Press, 1992)Google Scholar. Also KAVIRAJ, Sudipta, “Religion, Politics and Modernity” in BAXI, Upendra and PAREKH, Bhikhu, eds., Crisis and Change in Contemporary India (New Delhi: Sage Publications), 295Google Scholar.

168. HALL, Stuart and GAY, Paul du, eds., Questions of Cultural Identity (London: Sage, 1996)Google Scholar.

169. ELWERT, Georg, “Boundaries, Cohesion and Switching: On We-Groups in Ethnic, National and Religious Forms” (1995) 10 Anthropologie & Développement 10Google Scholar. Also ELWERT, Georg, “Boundaries, Cohesion and Switching: On We-Groups in Ethnic National and Religious Forms” in WICKER, Hans-Rudolf, ed., Rethinking Nationalism and Ethnicity: The Struggle for Meaning and Order in Europe (Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1997), paras. 64–70Google Scholar.

170. BARTH, Fredrik, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference (Boston.MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1969)Google Scholar.

171. SCHLEE, Günther, How Enemies Are Made: Towards a Theory of Ethnic and Religious Conflict (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2010)Google Scholar.

172. THAPAR, Romila, “Communalism and the Historical Legacy: Some Facets” (1990) 18 Social Scientist 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

173. Tharoor, supra note 141.

174. Bhasin-Malik, supra note 154.

175. BHATTACHARYA-PANDA, Nandini, Appropriation and Invention of Tradition: The East India Company and Hindu Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

176. GIUNCHI, Elisa, “The Reinvention of Sharī'a under the British Raj: In Search of Authenticity and Certainty” (2010) 69 Journal of Asian Studies 1119CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

177. KISHWAR, Madhu, “Codified Hindu Law: Myth and Reality” (1994) 29 Economic and Political Weekly 2145Google Scholar.

178. COHN, Bernard S., Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

179. Tharoor, supra note 141.

180. SAID, Edward W., Orientalism (London: Routledge & Keagan Paul, 1978)Google Scholar.

181. Bhasin-Malik, supra note 154.

182. METCALF, Thomas R., Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) at 132Google Scholar.

183. Ibbetson, supra note 153 at 101.

184. Ibid.

185. KAVIRAJ, Sudipta, “Religion and Identity in India” (1997) 20 Ethnic and Racial Studies 325CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

186. JONES, Kenneth W., “Religious Identity and the Indian Census” in BARRIER, Gerald N., ed., The Census in British India: New Perspectives (New Delhi: Manohar, 1981), at 85–8Google Scholar; APPADURAI, Arjun, “Number in the Colonial Imagination” in BRECKENRIDGE, Carol A. and VEER, Peter van der, eds., Orientalism and the Post-colonial Predicament (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), 314Google Scholar.

187. PANDEY, Gyanendra, The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

188. Thapar, supra note 172.

189. EATON, Richard M., “Approaches to the Study of Conversion to Islam in India” in MARTIN, Richard M., ed., Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 1985), at 115–16Google Scholar.

190. CHANDRA, Bipan, Communalism in Modern India (New Delhi: Vikas, 1984)Google Scholar.

191. GOTTSCHALK, Peter, Religion, Science and Empire: Classifying Hinduism and Islam in British India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

192. Singh and Talbot, supra note 157.

193. Pandey, supra note 187.

194. GOULD, William, Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Politics in Late Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

195. TALBOT, Ian and SINGH, Gurharpal, The Partition of India (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

196. OBEROI, Harjot, The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1994)Google Scholar.

197. Bhasin-Malik, supra note 154.

198. TALBOT, Ian, “The Growth of the Muslim League in Punjab” (1982) 20 Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 1Google Scholar.

199. Talbot and Singh, supra note 195.

200. GILMARTIN, David, Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992)Google Scholar.

201. OREN, Stephen, “The Sikhs, Congress, and Unionists in British Punjab” (1974) 8 Modern Asian Studies 397Google Scholar.

202. TALBOT, Ian, “The 1946 Punjab Elections” (1980) 14 Modern Asian Studies 65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

203. Virdee, supra note 83.

204. AIYAR, Swarna, “‘August Anarchy’: The Partition Massacres in Punjab, 1947” (1995) 18 Journal of South Asian Studies 13Google Scholar.

205. Chester, supra note 77.

206. Khan, supra note 81.

207. See Barth, supra note 170.

208. See Elwert, supra note 169.

209. Bhasin-Malik, supra note 154.

210. Malhotra, supra note 163.

211. Malhotra and Mir, supra note 148.

212. Talbot and Singh, supra note 195.

213. Fenech, supra note 161.

214. Brass, supra note 138.

215. Aiyar, supra note 204.

216. Talbot and Singh, supra note 195.

217. Virdee, supra note 83.

218. Barth, supra note 170.

219. BOWMAN, Glenn W., “Constitutive Violence and the Nationalist Imaginary. Antagonism and Defensive Solidarity in ‘Palestine’ and ‘Former Yugoslavia’” (2003) 11 Social Anthropology 319CrossRefGoogle Scholar; KRIESBERG, Louis and DAYTON, Bruce W., Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998)Google Scholar; FEARON, James D. and LATIN, David D., “Violence and the Social Construction of Ethnic Identity” (2000) 54 International Organization 845CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

220. Schlee, supra note 171; ESSES, Victoria M. and VERNON, Richard A., eds., Explaining the Breakdown of Ethnic Relations: Why Neighbours Kill (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

221. HARRISON, Simon J., The Mask of War: Violence, Ritual, and the Self in Melanesia (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993)Google Scholar.

222. Brass, supra note 138 at 82.

223. KALDOR, Mary, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era, 2nd ed. (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

224. CHINKIN, Christine and KALDOR, Mary, International Law and New Wars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

225. Butalia, supra note 162.

226. MENON, Ritu and BHASIN, Kamla, Borders and Boundaries: Women in India's Partition (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998)Google Scholar.

227. Virdee, supra note 83.

228. Butalia, supra note 162.

229. Chester, supra note 77.

230. Chester, supra note 77.

231. Bigelow, supra note 146.

232. Virdee, supra note 83.

233. COPLAND, Ian, “The Master and the Maharajas: The Sikh Princes and the East Punjab Massacres of 1947” (2002) 36 Modern Asian Studies 657CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

234. Malhotra and Mir, supra note 148.

235. See Crawford, supra note 26.

236. Brass, supra note 138.

237. Ratner, supra note 16.

238. BRILMAYER, Lea, “Secession and Self-Determination: A Territorial Interpretation” (1991) 16 Yale Journal of International Law 177Google Scholar.

239. CASSESE, Antonio, Self-determination of Peoples (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

240. Mutua, supra note 19.

241. Shaw, supra note 5.

242. Ratner, supra note 16.

243. Castellino and Allen, supra note 7.

244. Mahmud, supra note 25.

245. Ibid.

246. UNHCR Report, supra note 68; Shahabuddin, supra note 68.