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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 02 November 2022
Despite more than 40 years’ legislation to build a ‘law-governed country’ and the Communist Party of China (CPC)'s repeated proclaiming to ‘govern the country according to law’, China still lacks legislation concerning a constitutional matter that is central to its governance, ie, the powers of the CPC to rule. No law specifies its powers, and the CPC's rule is not based on law. Why has such a crucial and apparent loophole not been filled? It is essentially because of the CPC's insistence on supremacy with unchallengeable authority in the governance of China. Specifying in law the Party's powers, and how they should be exercised, would subject its rule to law and set a legal limit on its powers, which is irreconcilable with its goals of maintaining supremacy and absolute authority. Hence, an insoluble dilemma can be observed: while the CPC leadership wants China to become a law-governed country to attain lasting order and stability, they have to rule the country extralegally to avoid legal challenges to the supremacy of their rule. This article not only sheds light on this inherent contradiction, but also offers insight into the nature of the CPC's practice to ‘govern the country according to law’.
Lecturer in Chinese Studies, School of East Asian Studies, University of Sheffield, UK. An earlier version of this article was presented at the 2018 Annual Conference of the European China Law Studies Association in Turin. The author would also like to thank Professor Hugo Dobson, Dr Peter Matanle and two anonymous reviewers from this journal for helpful comments on earlier drafts.
1 Translated from ‘有法可依，有法必依，执法必严，违法必究’ (Youfa Keyi, Youfa Biyi, Zhifa Biyan, Weifa Bijiu). See Xiaoping Deng (邓小平), ‘解放思想，实事求是，团结一致向前看 [Emancipate the Mind, Seek Truth From Facts and Unite as One in Looking to the Future]’ (Speech at the closing meeting of the Central Working Conference of the CPC, 13 Dec 1978).
2 Translated from ‘依法治国，建设社会主义法治国家’ (Yifa Zhiguo, Jianshe Shehui Zhuyi Fazhi Guojia). ‘法治国家’ (Fazhi Guojia) has also been translated as ‘a rule-of-law state’. See Peerenboom, Randall, China's Long March Toward Rule of Law (Cambridge University Press 2002) 59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
3 Zemin Jiang (江泽民), ‘在中国共产党第十五次全国代表大会上的报告 [Report at the 15th Congress of the CPC]’ (12 Sep 1997).
4 See Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Xianfa Xiuzheng An (中华人民共和国宪法修正案) [Amendment to the Constitution of the PRC], adopted at the 2nd Session of the 9th National People's Congress (15 Mar 1999).
5 The CPC Central Committee (中共中央), 中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定 [Decision of the CPC Central Committee on Major Issues Pertaining to Comprehensively Advancing Law-Based Governance], passed by the 3rd Plenum of the 18th Congress of the CPC (23 Oct 2014).
6 Jinping Xi (习近平), ‘关于《中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定》的说明 [Explanation on the CPC Central Committee Decision on Major Issues Pertaining to Comprehensively Advancing Law-Based Governance]’ (Speech delivered at the 3rd Plenum of the 18th Congress of the CPC, 23 Oct 2014). ‘Eternal order and stability’ is ‘长治久安’ (Changzi Jiu'An) in Chinese.
7 Bangguo Wu (吴邦国), ‘全国人民代表大会常务委员会工作报告 [Work Report of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]’ (Delivered at the 5th session of the 11th NPC, 8 Mar 2008).
8 ibid.
9 CPC Central Committee (n 5).
10 ibid.
11 ‘Xi Jinping's Leadership: Chairman of Everything’ (The Economist, 2 Apr 2016) <https://www.economist.com/china/2016/04/02/chairman-of-everything> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
12 For the possibility of constitutionalism or rule of law in an authoritarian state, see Tushnet, Mark, ‘Authoritarian Constitutionalism’ (2015) 100 Cornell Law Review 391Google Scholar. Tushnet's thesis was based on a case study of Singapore. However, the authoritarianism practiced in China and in Singapore are different.
13 For the discussion of ‘rule of law’ in general and the distinction between the ‘thick’ and ‘thin’ version of ‘rule of law’, see Peerenboom (n 2) 63–109.
14 For the argument that the Party had ‘retreated’ prior to Xi, see Peerenboom (n 2) 188–216.
15 Albert HY Chen, ‘The Discourse of Political Constitutionalism in Contemporary China: Gao Quanxi's Studies on China's Political Constitution’ (2014) 14 China Review 183; Baogang He, ‘Socialist Constitutionalism in Contemporary China’, in Michael W Dowdle & Michael A Wilkinson (eds), Constitutionalism Beyond Liberalism (Cambridge University Press 2017) 176–194.
16 Peerenboom (n 2) ch 5.
17 Hongguo Chen (谌洪果), ‘中国当下的宪政思潮—目标及路径之争 [Trend of Thoughts of Constitutionalism in Contemporary China: Debates on Goals and Paths]’ (Gongshi Wang, 20 Jun 2013), archived at https://chinadigitaltimes.net/chinese/299975.html> accessed 21 Sep 2022.
18 See Peerenboom (n 2) 63–109.
19 Chen, Albert HY, ‘Towards a Legal Enlightenment: Discussion in Contemporary China on the Rule of Law’ (1999) 17 UCLA Pacific Basin Law Journal 125CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
20 Commenting on the debate, Xi Jinping said ‘the question of whether the Party is above the law or the law above the Party is a political trap and a false proposition’, and ‘Party leadership and governance by law are congruous rather than contradictory, in that the law fully manifests the Party as well as the people's wills’. See Jinping Xi (习近平), ‘坚定不移走中国特色社会主义法治道路 为全面建设社会主义现代化国家提供有力法治保) [Unswervingly Follow the Path of the Socialist Rule of Law With Chinese Characteristics to Provide a Strong Legal Guarantee for the Comprehensive Construction of a Modern Socialist Country]’ (2021) 5 Qiushi (Seeking Truth) 4. But the real concern in the debate is whether the Party should act within the limits of the law, which Xi answered affirmatively.
21 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Xianfa (中华人民共和国宪法) [The Constitution of the PRC 1982], art 5.
22 Tony Saich, Governance and Politics of China (Palgrave Macmillan 2015) 109–115.
23 A popular book on the CPC begins its first chapter with ‘The Party is like God. He is everywhere. You just can't see him’: Richard McGregor, The Party: The Secret World of China's Communist Rulers (Harper Perennial 2010) 1.
24 Yongnian Zheng, ‘The Party Domination of the State’, in Kjeld Erik Brodsgaard (ed), Critical Readings on the Communist Party of China (Brill 2016) 249–278.
25 Li, Ling, ‘“Rule of law” in a Party-State: A Conceptual Interpretive Framework of the Constitutional Reality of China’ (2015) 2 Asian Journal of Law and Society 93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
26 Zhongguo Gongchangdang Dangzu Gongzuo Tiaoli (Shixing) (中国共产党党组工作条例（试行）) [CPC Regulations on Party Group Work (Provisional Implementation)] (16 Jun 2015).
27 Li (n 25).
28 John P Burns, ‘The Chinese Communist Party's Nomenklatura System as a Leadership Selection Mechanism: An Evaluation’, in Kjeld Erik Brodsgaard (ed), Critical Readings on the Communist Party of China (Brill 2016) 479–509.
29 The supervision commissions are one branch of the state in name, but the Party is in real charge. See Jamie P Horsley, ‘What's so Controversial About China's New Anti-Corruption Body? Digging into the National Supervision Commission’ (The Diplomat, 30 May 2018) <https://thediplomat.com/2018/05/whats-so-controversial-about-chinas-new-anti-corruption-body/> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
30 Chris Buckley, ‘China Gives Communist Party More Control Over Policy and Media’ (The New York Times, 21 Mar 2018) <https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/21/world/asia/china-communist-party-xi-jinping.html> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
31 See Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Xianfa Xiuzheng An (中华人民共和国宪法修正案) [Amendment to the Constitution of the PRC], adopted at the 1st Session of the 13th National People's Congress (11 Mar 2018).
32 Robert Heuser, ‘The Legal Status of the Chinese Communist Party’ [1987] Occasional Papers/Reprints Series in Contemporary Asian Studies no 4, Article no 1; Delmestro, Manuel, ‘The Communist Party and the Law: An Outline of Formal and Less Formal Linkages Between the Ruling Party and Other Legal Institutions in the PRC’ (2010) 43 Suffolk University Law Review 681Google Scholar.
33 Constitution of the PRC, arts 57 and 58.
34 Songshan Liu, ‘Dang Lingdao Lifa Gongzuo Xuyao Jiejue De Jige Zhongyao Wenti (党领导立法工作需要研究解决的几个重要问题) [Several Issues on Party's Leadership in Legislation to be Resolved]’ (2017) 5 Faxue [Legal Science] 3.
35 Murray Scot Tanner, The Politics of Law-making in Post-Mao China: Institutions, Processes, and Democratic Prospects (Oxford University Press 1999) 64–70; Li Han, ‘Zhongguo Lifa de Fei Zhengshixing Jiqi Zhengzhi Gongneng’ (中国立法的非正式性及其政治功能) [Legislation in China: Informality and Its Political Functions]’ (2002) 2 Dangdai Zhongguo Yanjiu [Modern China Studies] 49.
36 ibid.
37 See Peerenboom (n 2).
38 For the procedure of constitutional amendment, see Constitution of the PRC, art 64.
39 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Lifa Fa (中华人民共和国立法法) [Legislation Law of the PRC], adopted at the 3rd Session of the 9th National People's Congress (15 Mar 2000), amended at the 3rd Session of the 12th National People's Congress (15 Mar 2015), art 3.
40 ‘Zhonggong Zhongyang Feizhi he Xuanbu Shixiao 691 Jian Dangnei Fagui (中共中央废止和宣布失效691件党内法规) [The Centre of the CPC Repealed and Declared to be cease to be valid 691 Pieces of Regulation]’ (Renmin Ribao [People's Daily], 17 Nov 2014).
41 The General Office of the CPC Central Committee & the General Office of the State Council, ‘Guanyu Kaizhan Gongcheng Jianshe Lingyu Tuchu Wenti Zhuanxiang Zhili Gongzuo de Yijian (关于开展工程建设领域突出问题专项治理工作的意见) [Advice on the Special Rectification of Serious Wrongdoings in the Field of Engineering and Construction]’, in 中国共产党党内法规选编（2007－2012） [Selection of Intra-Party Regulations of the CPC (2007–2012)] (法律出版社[Law Press China] 2014). This advice was originally issued on 20 August 2009.
42 The General Office of the CPC Central Committee & the General Office of the State Council, ‘Jieqing Huodong Guanli Banfa (Shixing) (节庆活动管理办法（试行）) [Measures on Managing Festival Cerebration Activities (Trial Implementation)]’, in 中国共产党党内法规选编（2007－2012） [Selection of Intra-Party Regulations of the CPC (2007–2012)] (法律出版社[Law Press China] 2014). These Measures were originally issued on 29 May 2012.
43 The Organisation Department of the CPC Central Committee & the Ministry of Personnel, ‘Gongwuyuan Jiangli Guiding (Shixing) (公务员录用考试违纪违规行为处理办法（试行）) [Regulations on the Rewards for Civil Servants (Trial Implementation)]’, in 中国共产党党内法规选编（2007－2012） [Selection of Intra-Party Regulations of the CPC (2007–2012)] (法律出版社 [Law Press China] 2014). These Regulations were originally issued on 4 January 2008.
44 The CPC Central Committee, Zhongguo Gongchandang Dangnei Fagui Zhiding Chengxu Zanxing Tiaoli (中国共产党党内法规制定程序暂行条例) [Provisional Regulations on the Procedure to Enact Intra-Party Regulations] (31 Jul 1990); CPC Central Committee, Zhongguo Gongchandang Dangnei Fagui Zhiding Tiaoli (中国共产党党内法规制定程序暂行条例 [Regulations on Enacting Intra-Party Regulations] (27 May 2013).
45 Xiaoping Deng, ‘Dang He Guojia Lingdao Zhidu de Gaige (党和国家领导制度的改革) [On the Reform of the Party and State Leadership]’, in Deng Xiaoping Wenxue [Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping] (人民出版社 [People's Press] 1983) 320–343. This is in Volume 2 of the book.
46 Susan L Shirk, ‘The Chinese Political System and the Political Strategy of Economic Reform’, in Kenneth G Lieberthal & David M Lampton (eds), Bureaucracy, Politics, Decision Making in Post-Mao China (University of California Press 1992) 60–93.
47 The Central Committee of the CPC, Zhongguo Gongchandang Zhongda Shixiang Qingshi Baogao Tiaoli (中国共产党重大事项请示报告条例) [Regulations of the CPC on Reporting Important Issues and Requesting for Instructions] (28 Feb 2019).
48 Xiangwei Wang, ‘As Shaanxi Saga Shows, Even Xi Hits China's Bureaucratic Brick Wall’ (South China Morning Post, 19 Jan 2019) <https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/2182577/shaanxi-saga-shows-even-xi-hits-chinas-bureaucratic-brick-wall?module=perpetual_scroll_0&pgtype=article&campaign=2182577> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
49 Shin Kyung-Jin, ‘Return of the Emperor’ (Korea JoongAng Daily, 27 Jan 2019) <https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2019/01/27/fountain/Return-of-the-emperor/3058730.html> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
50 Jun Mai, ‘Chinese Provincial Chief Given Suspended Death Sentence for Role in Major Corruption Scandal’ (South China Morning Post, 31 Jul 2020) <https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3095595/chinese-provincial-chief-given-suspended-death-sentence-role> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
51 Alice Miller, ‘The CCP Central Committee's Leading Small Groups’ [2008] China Leadership Monitor no 26 <https://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/CLM26AM.pdf> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
52 Alice Miller, ‘More Already on the Central Committee's Leading Small Groups’ [2014] China Leadership Monitor no 44 <https://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/research/docs/clm44am.pdf> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
53 ‘To rule China, Xi Jinping Relies on a Shadowy Web of Committees’ (The Economist, 10 Jun 2017) <https://www.economist.com/china/2017/06/10/to-rule-china-xi-jinping-relies-on-a-shadowy-web-of-committees> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
54 Li, Ling, ‘The Chinese Communist Party and People's Courts: Judicial Dependence in China’ (2016) 64 The American Journal of Comparative Law 37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
55 ‘Zhouqiang: Shenru Tuijin Saohei Chue Zhuanxiang Douzheng (周强：深入推进扫黑除恶专项斗争) [Zhouqiang Calls for Further Pushing on with the Special Struggle to Sweep Away the Black and Get Rid of the Evil]’ (Renmin Ribao [People's Daily], 25 Dec 2018).
56 ‘Zuigaofa Dangzu: Wei Minying Jingji Fazhan Tigong Gengyouli de Sifa Fuwu he Baozhang (最高法党组：为民营经济发展提供更有力的司法服务和保障) [The Party Group of the Supreme People's Court: Providing More Robust Judicial Service and Guarantee to Support the Development of the Private Economy]’ (Zhongguo Ribao [China Daily], 5 Nov 2018).
57 In a survey of 280 judges, almost 70% said that they were subject to interference. See Peerenboom (n 2) 307. See also Gong, Ting, ‘Dependent Judiciary and Unaccountable Judges: Judicial Corruption in Contemporary China’ (2004) 4 The China Review 33Google Scholar; Liebman, Benjamin L, ‘China's Courts: Restricted Reform’ (2007) 21 Columbia Journal of Asian Law 1Google Scholar.
58 Li (n 54).
59 The General Office of the Central Committee of the CPC & the State Council, Lingdao Ganbu Ganyu Sifa Huodong, Chashou Juti Anjian Chuli de Jilu, Tongbao he Zeren Zhuijiu Guiding (领导干部干预司法活动、插手具体案件处理的记录、通报和责任追究规定) [Provisions on Recording, Noticing and Disciplining Leading Officials Interfering with Judicial Activities and Meddling in Individual Cases] (31 Mar 2015).
60 The Central Committee of the CPC, Zhongguo Gongchandang Zhengfa Gongzuo Tiaoli (中国共产党政法工作条例) [Regulations on Political-Legal Work] (18 Jan 2019).
61 He, Xin, ‘Pressures on Chinese Judges under Xi’ (2021) 85 The China Journal 49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
62 Zhu, Suli ‘Political Parties in China's Judiciary’ (2007) 17 Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law 533Google Scholar.
63 Zhongguo Gongchandang Zhangcheng (中国共产党章程) [Charter of the CPC], adopted at the 19th Congress Meeting (24 Oct 2017), art 23.
64 ibid.
65 Dangzheng Lingdao Ganbu Xuanba Renyong Gongzuo Tiaoli (党政领导干部选拔任用工作条例) [Regulations on the Work to Select and Appoint Leading Cadres of the Party and the State], issued on 9 Jul 2002, revised and recirculated on 15 Jan 2014 by the Central Committee of the CPC, art 4.
66 Translated from ‘Yigui Zhidang’ (依规治党).
67 See text to the CPC Central Committee (n 44).
68 See text to ‘Zhonggong Zhongyang Feizhi he Xuanbu Shixiao 691 Jian Dangnei Fagui (中共中央废止和宣布失效 691 件党内法规) [The Centre of the CPC Repealed and Declared to be cease to be valid 691 Pieces of Regulation]’ (n 40).
69 Lon L Fuller, The Morality of Law (Yale University Press 1969) 46–94.
70 The Supreme People's Court of PRC, Xingzheng Caidingshu (2018) Zuigaofa Xingshen 798 Hao [Administrative Verdict (2018) No 798 of Administrative Appeal] (28 Mar 2018).
71 Mingan Jiang, ‘Lun Zhongguo Gongchandang Dangnei Fagui de Xingzhi yu Zuoyong (论中国共产党党内法规的性质与作用) [On the Nature and Functions of the Intra-Party Regulations of the CPC]’ (2012) 49 Beijing Daxue Xuebao (Zhexue Shehui Kexue Ban) [Journal of Beijing University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)] 109.
72 See Tanner (n 35) 66 fn 27.
73 ibid.
74 Shigong Jiang, ‘Written and Unwritten Constitutions: A New Approach to the Study of Constitutional Government in China’ (2010) 36 Modern China 12.
75 ‘Zhongguo Renmin Zhengxie Diyijie Quanti Huiyi Shengli Bimu (中国人民政协第一届全体会议胜利闭幕) [The 1st Plenary Meeting of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Concluded Successfully]’ (Renmin Ribao [People's Daily], 1 Oct 1949).
76 Zhongguo Renmin Zhengzhi Xieshang Huyi Gongtong Gangling (中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领) [Common Programme of Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference], adopted at the 1st plenary meeting of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (29 Sep 1949), Preamble.
77 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Xianfa (中华人民共和国宪法) [Constitution of the PRC], adopted at the 1st Plenary Meeting of the 1st National People's Congress (20 Sep 1954), Preamble.
78 Jones, William C, ‘The Constitution of the People's Republic of China’ (1985) 63 Washington University Law Quarterly 707Google Scholar.
79 Albert Chen, An Introduction to the Legal System of the PRC (4th edn, Butterworths Law (Asia) 2011) 53.
80 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Xianfa (中华人民共和国宪法) [Constitution of the PRC], adopted at the 1st Plenary Meeting of the 4th National People's Congress (17 Jan 1975), arts 15, 16 and 17.
81 Songshan Liu, ‘Dang de Lingdao Xieru 1982 Nian Xianfa de Lishi Huigu yu Xinqidai (党的领导写入 1982 年宪法的历史回顾与新期待) [A Historical Review and New Expectation on the Party's Leadership in the 1982 Constitution]’ (2014) 143 Henan Caijing Zhengfa Daxue Xuebao [Journal of Henan University of Economics and Law] 1.
82 Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Xianfa (中华人民共和国宪法) [Constitution of the PRC], adopted at the 5th Plenary Meeting of the 5th National People's Congress (4 Dec 1982), art 5.
83 Feilong Tian, Political Constitutionalism in China (City University of Hong Kong Press 2017) 277–320.
84 Translated from Yidang zhiguo (以党治国). See Wei Wu, ‘Shisanda hou de Dangzheng Fenkai (十三大后的党政分开改革) [The Reform to Separate the Party and the Government After the 13th Party Congress]’ (New York Times in Chinese, 30 Sep 2014) <https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20140930/cc30wuwei31/> accessed 20 Jul 2022.
85 Ziyang Zhao (赵紫阳), ‘沿着有中国特色的社会主义道路前进 [Advance Along the Road of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics]’ (Report delivered at the 13th National Congress of the CPC, 25 Oct 1987).
86 Wu (n 84).
87 Zemin Jiang (江泽民), ‘高举邓小平理论伟大旗帜，把建设有中国特色社会主义事业全面推向二十一世纪 [Hold High the Great Banner of Deng Xiaoping Theory and Push the Cause of Building Socialism with Chinese Characteristics into the 21st Century]’ (Report delivered at the 15th National Congress of the CPC, 12 Sep 1997).
88 Translated from Yifa Zhizheng (依法执政). See the Central Committee of the CPC, Guanyu Jiaqiang Dang de Zhizheng Nengli Jianshe de Jueding (关于加强党的执政能力建设的决定) [The Decision on Improving the Ruling Capability of the Party], adopted at the 4th Plenary session of the 16th Central Committee of the CPC (19 Sep 2004).
89 Zhong Li, ‘Goujian Yigui Zhidang Fagui Zhidu Tixi Yanjiu (构建依规治党法规制度体系研究) [Research on Constructing a System of Regulations for Governing the Party In accordance with Regulations]’ (2017) 5 Xibei Daxue Xuebao (Zhexue Shehui Kexue Ban) [Journal of North-Western University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)] 19.
90 See Chen (n 15); He (n 15).
91 Zhiwei Tong, The Constitutional Reform in Contemporary China (City University of Hong Kong Press 2016) 179–203.
92 See He (n 17).
93 Kellogg, Thomas E, ‘Arguing Chinese Constitutionalism: The 2013 Constitutional Debate and the “Urgency” of Political Reform’ (2017) 11 University of Pennsylvania Asian Law Review 337Google Scholar; Creemers, Rogier, ‘China's Constitutionalism Debate: Content, Context and Implications’ (2015) 74 The China Journal 91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
94 Chen, Jianfu, ‘Out of the Shadows and Back to the Future: CPC and Law in China’ (2016) 24 Asia Pacific Law Review 176CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
95 Huaqing Ke & Rong Liu, ‘Lun Lixian Dangdaozhi (论立宪党导制) [On the Party-Led Constitutionalism]’ (2015) 7 Zhanlue Yu Guanli [Strategy and Management].
96 See the CPC Central Committee (n 5).
97 The CPC Central Committee, Guanyu Jiaqiang Dang de Zhengzhi Jianshe de Yijian (关于加强党的政治建设的意见) [The Opinions of the CPC Party Centre on Strengthening the Party's Political Construction] (31 Jan 2019). See Aimin Ou (欧爱民) & Jiachen Xiang (向嘉晨), ‘“Dang de Lingdao” Ru Fa Yuanze ji Biaozhun (“党的领导”入法原则及其标准) [Principles and Standards of Stipulating “the Leadership of the CPC” in Law]’ (2020) 3 Zhonguo Tianjin Shiwei Dangxiao Xuebao [Journal of the Party School of Tianjin] 3.
98 Zhongyang Dangnei Fagui Zhiding Gongzuo Wunian Guihua Gangyao (2013–2017 Nian) (中央党内法规制定工作五年规划纲要（2013–2017 年）[The Outline of the Party Centre on the 5-Year Plan for Legislating on Intra-Party Regulations (2013–2017)] (28 Nov 2013); Zhongyang Dangnei Fagui Zhiding Gongzuo Dierge Wunian Guihua (2018–2022 Nian) (中央党内法规制定工作五年规划纲要 (2013–2017 年) [The Second 5-Year Plan of the Party Centre for Legislating on Intra-Party Regulations (2018–2022)] (24 Feb 2018).
99 Tom Ginsburg & Alberto Simpser (eds), Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes (Cambridge University Press 2014); David S Law & Mila Versteeg, ‘Sham Constitutions’ (2013) 101 California Law Review 863.
100 Tom Ginsburg & Alberto Simpser, ‘Introduction: Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes’, in Tom Ginsburg & Alberto Simpser (eds), Constitutions in Authoritarian Regimes (Cambridge University Press 2014) 1–17.
101 ibid 7.
102 Law & Versteeg (n 99).
103 Zhang, Qianfan, ‘A Constitution without Constitutionalism? The Path of Constitutional Development in China’ (2010) 8 International Journal of Constitutional Law 950CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
104 ‘China Holds Elections’ (The Economist, 10 Nov 2016) <https://www.economist.com/china/2016/11/10/china-holds-elections> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
105 Kellogg (n 93).
106 Charter of the CPC, Preamble.
107 Kellogg (n 93).
108 Albert HY Chen, ‘Constitutions, Constitutionalism and the Case of Modern China’ (University of Hong Kong Faculty of Law Research Paper No 2017/023) <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3027562> accessed 20 Jul 2022.
109 See eg, ‘China's Xi Allowed to Remain “President for Life” as Term Limits Removed’ (BBC, 11 Mar 2018) <https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-43361276> accessed 20 Jul 2022; Ben Blanchard & Christian Shepherd, ‘China Allows Xi to Remain President Indefinitely, Tightening His Grip on Power’ (Reuters, 11 Mar 2018) <https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament/china-allows-xi-to-remain-president-indefinitely-tightening-his-grip-on-power-idUSKCN1GN07E> accessed 20 Jul 2022.
110 ‘Xi Jinping Decides to Abolish Presidential Term Limits’ (The Economist, 1 Mar 2018) <https://www.economist.com/china/2018/03/01/xi-jinping-decides-to-abolish-presidential-term-limits> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
111 See Tong (n 91); Qianhong Qin & Haibo Ye, The Study of Socialist Constitutionalism (City University of Hong Kong Press 2017) 13–32, 42–53.
112 ‘Xi Jinping Zhuchi Zhonggong Zhongyang Zhengzhiju Changweihui Huiyi (习近平主持中共中央政治局常委会会议) [Xi Jinping Chairs a Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Politburo]’ (Xinhua, 7 Jan 2016).
113 See the Supreme People's Court of PRC (n 70).
114 For the institutions responsible for constitutional supervision, see Constitution of the PRC 1982, arts 62 and 67.
115 Party decisions are not covered by the Administrative Litigation Law, and Party organisations cannot be sued in administrative litigation because they are not recognised as ‘administrative organisations’. Similarly, the laws of procedure governing civil, criminal and administrative litigation say nothing about the Party's power(s) in judicial decision-making, and judicial decisions ‘made’ by Party organisations backstage cannot be appealed. The only scenario where Party organisations can become a defendant in litigation is when they enter into commercial transactions in a private capacity, not in exercises of public power.
116 Peerenboom (n 2) 256–262.
117 Keith J Hand, ‘Understanding China's System for Addressing Legislative Conflicts: Capacity Challenges and the Search for Legislative Harmony’ (2013) 26 Columbia Journal of Asian Law 139.
118 See the CPC Central Committee (n 5).
119 Keith J Hand, ‘Constitutional Supervision in China after the 2018 Amendment of the PRC Constitution: Refining the Narrative of Constitutional Supremacy in a Socialist Legal System’ (2022) 23 Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 137.
120 Zhongguo Gongchandang Dangnei Fagui He Guifanxing Wenjian Beian Shencha Guiding (中国共产党党内法规和规范性文件备案审查规定) [Regulations on Filing and Reviewing Intra-Party Regulations and Normative Documents of the CPC], issued by the General Office of the CPC Central Committee (4 Jun 2012), amended by the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee (30 Aug 2019).
121 See generally Fuller (n 69).
122 Ginsburg & Simpser (n 100) 10.
123 Keith J Hand, ‘An Assessment of Socialist Constitutional Supervision Models and Prospects for a Constitutional Supervision Committee in China: The Constitution as Commander?’, in John Garrik & Yan Chang Bennett (eds), China's Socialist Rule of Law Reforms Under Xi Jinping (Routledge 2016) 30–44.
124 ibid.
125 Yuwen Deng “‘Xi Taiyang’ shi Zhenme Shengqi de? Neng Zhao Duojiu? (“习太阳”是怎么升起的，能照多久？) [How did “Xi Jinping, the Sun” rise? How Long will it Shine?]’ (New York Times in Chinese, 30 Oct 2018) <https://cn.nytimes.com/opinion/20181030/how-xi-sun-rose-shine/> accessed 20 Jul 2022.
126 See Tong (n 91); Qin & Ye (n 111).
127 Ke & Liu (n 95).
128 Shujun Zhang, ‘Zhongguo Gongchandang he Zhonghua Mingzu Fuxing de Sanci Weida Feiyue (中国共产党与中华民族复兴的三次伟大飞跃) [The CPC and the three great leaps in the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation]’ (2018) 17 Qiushi [Seeking Truth].
129 Jinping Xi ‘Zhongguo Gongchandang Liangdao Shi Zhongguo Tese Shehui Zhuyi Zui Benzhi De Tezheng, (中国共产党领导是中国特色社会主义最本质的特征) [The CPC Leadership is the fundamental characteristic of the socialism with Chinese characteristics]’ (2020) 14 Qiushi [Seeking Truth].
130 The State Council Information Office, ‘Wei Renmin Mou Xingfu: Xin Zhongguo Renquan Shiye Fazhan Qishi Nian (为人民谋幸福：新中国人权事业发展70年) [Seeking Happiness for the People: China's Human Right Progress in 70 Years]’ (White Paper, Sep 2019).
131 Duowei Zou, ‘Wei Quanqiu Zhidu Fanfu Gongxian Zhongguo Zhihui (为全球制度反腐贡献中国智慧) [Chinese wisdom for systemic anti-corruption around the world]’ (Xinhua, 9 Sep 2019).
132 Hao Zhang, ‘Women Dang Meiyou Ziji De Teshu Liyi (我们党没有自己特殊的利益) [Our Party does not have its own special interests]’ (Renmin Ribao [People's Daily], 25 Aug 2020) <http://theory.people.com.cn/n1/2020/0825/c40531-31835226.html> accessed 20 Jul 2022.
133 Snejina Michailova & Kate Hutchings, ‘National Cultural Influences on Knowledge Sharing: A Comparison of China and Russia’ (2006) 3 Journal of Management Studies 43.
134 Suisheng Zhao, ‘Chinese Nationalism and Its International Orientations’ (2000) 115 Political Science Quarterly 1.
135 Chris Buckley, ‘“The East Is Rising”: Xi Maps Out China's Post-Covid Ascent’ (The New York Times, 3 Mar 2021) <https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/03/world/asia/xi-china-congress.html> accessed 1 Aug 2022.
136 There is no shortage of such incidents of violence in the CPC's history. One prominent example is Lin Biao, a Marshal and Vice Chairman of the CPC Central Committee, who fled the country and died when an aircraft carrying him and several members of his family crashed in Mongolia on 13 September 1971.
137 When Mao died, there was a struggle for power at the top of the CPC until the ‘Gang of Four’ were arrested.