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World War Zero? New Literature on the Russo-Japanese War 1904/05

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2025

Gerhard Krebs
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Japan had the predominant role in creating the discourse of Pan-Asianism because it won the Russo-Japanese War. Gerhard Krebs's “World War Zero? New Literature on the Russo-Japanese War 1904/05” surveys some of the recent work on that war and the impact of Japan's victory around the world. It captured global attention as a racial war, since it was the first time an Asian nation had defeated a white nation. The greatest impact was in China and Korea, but Japan's success also influenced Pan-Islamic thought and the “Japanizers” of Ethiopia.

Although the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-5 had radically changed the relationship between Japan and China, it was the Russo-Japanese war that lifted Japan out of the mass of Asian nations and into the status of a world power. Victory in this war first gave Japan a chance to speak as the voice of Asia to the Western powers. This achievement encouraged many in China and elsewhere in Asia to model their national reconstruction efforts on Japan. In Southeast Asia colonial subjects of the European empires hoped that Japan would help them gain independence. Although these hopes would not be dashed immediately, some people became aware of the contradictions between Pan-Asianism and the growing Japanese empire very early. Chinese intellectual Zhang Taiyan (who had famously said that the relationship between Japan and China should be as close as “lips and teeth”) became convinced that Japanese Pan-Asianism was not leading to what he desired, an “Asian Humanitarian Brotherhood,” but to Japanese imperial domination. By 1907 he was denouncing Japan as the “public enemy” of Asia.

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Asia-Pacific Journal , Volume 11 , Special Issue S9: Course Reader No. 9. Japan, China, and Pan-Asianism , January 2013 , pp. 35 - 95
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References

Notes

1 This is an updated version of a review article originally published in German as: “World War Zero oder: Der Nullte Weltkrieg? Neuere Literatur zum Russisch-Japanischen Krieg 1904/05,” Nachrichten der Gesellschaft fūr Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens/Hamburg (OAG), 183-184, 2008, pp. 187-248.

Also: http://www.uni-hamburg.de/Japanologie/noag/noag183-184.html

I am grateful to Steve Barnett for correcting my English manuscript.

2 Ōe Shinobu, Sekaishi toshite no Nichi-Ro sensō [The Russo-Japanese War as World History] (Tōkyō: Rippū Shobō 2001).

3 Yamamuro Shinichi, Nichi-Ro sensō no seiki: rensa shiten kara miru Nihon to sekai [The Century of the Russo-Japanese War: Japan and the World Viewed from the Perspective of Chain Reaction] (Tokyo : Iwanami Shoten 2005).

4 Christian Mūller, “Anmerkungen zur Entwicklung von Kriegsbild und operativ-strategischem Szenario im preußisch-deutschen Heer vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg,” Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 57, 1998, pp. 384-442, here pp. 298-402.

5 See S. P. MacKenzie, “Willpower or Firepower? The Unlearned Military Lessons of the Russo-Japanese War,” David Wells und Sandra Wilson, Eds., The Russo-Japanese War in Cultural Perspective, 1904-1905 (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1999), pp. 30-40.

6 See also Sönke Neitzel, “Das Revolutionsjahr 1905 in den internationalen Beziehungen,” Jan Kusber and Anderas Frings, Eds., Das Zarenreich, das Jahr 1905 und seine Wirkungen: Bestandsaufnahmen (Berlin: LIT 2007), pp. 25-29.

7 On Shiba Rōtarō see also Shiba Ryōtarō to Nichi-Ro sensō kenkyūkai, Ed., Shiba Ryotarō to Nichi-Ro sensō [Shiba Ryotarō and the Russo-Japanese War], 2 Vols. (Tōkyō: Ōbirin Daigaku Hokutō Ajia Sōgō Kenkyūjo 2008, 2010); Harald Meyer, Japans Bestseller-König: Eine narratologisch-wirkungsästhetische Erfolgsanalyse zum Phänomen Shiba Ryōtarō. München: iudicium 2010; Shimazu, Society pp. 273-80.

8 In the section on the Japanese-Chinese War one would have expected rather the book-length study of Rolf-Harald Wippich than his small publication mentioned: Japan und die deutsche Fernostpolitik 1894-1898 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag 1987).

9 See in first line Ian H. Nish, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The Diplomacy of Two Island Empires, 1894-1907 (London: Athlone Press 1966); ibid.: The Origins of the Russo-Japanese War (London: Longman 1985).

10 British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print. General Eds.: Kenneth Bourne et al., Pt. 1, From the Mid-nineteenth Century to the First World War, Ser. E, Asia, 1860 - 1914. Ed.: Ian H. Nish, Vols. 7-12 (Frederick, Md., University Publications of America 1989-93).

11 Included are: Ian Hamilton, A Staff Officer's Scrapbook, Vols. 2, 3 (Originally London: Edward Arnold 1905, 1907).

M. Barin, With the Russians in Manchuria = Vol. 4 (London: Methuen 1905).

Military Correspondent of The Times [Charles à Court Repington], The War in the Far East 1904-5 = Vol. 5 (London: Murray 1905).

Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett, Port Arthur: The Siege and Capitulation = Vol. 6 (Edinburgh: Blackwood 1906).

Eugene S. Politovsky, From Libau to Tsushima: A Narrative of the Voyage of Admiral Rojestvenky's Fleet to Eastern Seas, Including a Detailed Account of the Dogger Bank Incident = Vol. 7 (London: John Murray 1906).

(Captain) Vladimir Semenoff, The Battle of Tsushima Between the Japanese and Russian Fleets, Fought on 27thMay 1905 in Vol. 8 (London: John Murray 1912).

Lieutenant-general A. A. Ignatyev, A Subaltern in Old Russia in Vol. 8 (London: Hutchinson & Co. 1944, pp. 153-288).

12 David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, Toward the Rising Sun: Russian Ideologies of Empire and the Path to War with Japan (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press 2001.

13 So the expression of K. Hildebrand in Kreiner p. 28. A. Li in Wolff (p. 491) mistakenly speaks about the German control over Liaodong (Liautung). Correct is: over Shantung. Die Liautung-peninsula was rather “leased” in 1898 by Russia and fell in 1905 to victorious Japan.

14 Wada in Wolff pp. 30-31.

Wada published a facsimile of the memorandum in Yamagata Shinbun December 7, 2009 (http://www.yamagata-np.jp/news_core/index_pr.php?kate=Main&no=2009120701000184).

15 Neitzel pp. 28-29.

16 Menning in Steinberg p. 147 mistakenly assumes that a declaration of war preceded immediately before the assault on Port Arthur. Actually the declaration of war followed on February 10, 1904, that means two days after the attack.

17 On the model character of the Russo-Japanese War for the Pacific War see the opinion of Army Minister Tōjō Hideki expressed in an interview with Prime Minister Konoe Fumimaro on October 13, 1941 in Kōnoe's Memoirs (The Memoirs of Prince Kōnoye, Tōkyō : Okuyama Service 1945, p. 57) and the testimony of Sejima Ryūzō, at that time Major in the strategy division of the general staff (Moto-Daihonei-sanbō no Taiheiyōsensō. Sejima Ryūzō Intabyū [The Pacific War of a Former Staff Officer. Interview with Sejima Ryūzō.] Tōkyō: Tōkyō Shinbun Shuppankyoku 1995), pp. 40-41. On the Portsmouth peace conference as a model for an early peace in the Pacific War see Yoshida Shigeru, The Yoshida Memoirs: The Story of Japan in Crisis (Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1962), pp. 23-24, 246.

18 Sir C.C.P. FitzGerald, “Die Flottenlage im Fernen Osten”, Deutsche Revue, 29,1, 1904, p. 343.

19 Satō died on March 4, 1942, not in 1941 as Tadokoro (p. 323) maintains so that Satō would not have lived at the time of Pearl Harbor.

20 In the meantime Smethurst has also published a long biography of Takahashi including a thorough description about his activities during the Russo-Japanese War: From Foot Soldier to Finance Minister: Takahashi Korekiyo, Japan's Keynes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2007), chapters 8 and 9.

21 In Wolff p. 187 is, probably by mistake of the translator, the year of Bloch's death as 1904 wrong. The correct year 1902 is found in Gunjishigakkai II, p. 294.

22 Shelford Bidwell and Dominick Graham, Fire-Power: British Army Weapons and Theories of War 1904-1945 (London: George Allen & Unwin 1982), p.2.

23 Ian Hamilton, A Staff Officer's Scrap-Book during the Russo-Japanese War. 2 Vols. (London: Edward Arnold 1905, 1907), here Vol. 2, p. 97. A shorter one volume editions exists, London: Edward Arnold 1912.

24 Ian Hamilton, Tagebuch eines Generalstabsoffiziers während des russisch-japanischen Krieges (Berlin: Siegismund 1910).

25 Hamilton 1905, Vol. 1, p. 143; Hamilton 1910, p. 95.

26 Ian Hamilton, Compulsory Service: A Study of the Question in the Light of Experience (London: John Murray 1910), p.121.

27 Schlieffen to Chancellor von Bülow June 10, 1905, Die Große Politik der europäischen Kabinette 1871-1914. Sammlung der diplomatischen Akten des Auswärtigen Amtes. Vol. XIX, 2: Der Russisch-Japanische Krieg (Berlin: Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft für Politik und Geschichte 1925), pp. 423-24.

28 See also in German: Nakai Akio, “Deutsche und schweizerische Beobachter auf dem Schlachtfeld - 100 Jahre nach dem Russisch-Japanischen Krieg”, Geschichte, Politik und ihre Didaktik, 33, Heft 1-2, 2005, p. 85-92.

29 On the German policy see also Rolf-Harald Wippich, “Nis-Shin - Nichi-Ro sensō to Doitsu” [Japanese-Chinese and Japanese-Russian War and Germany], Kudo Akira and Tajima Nobuo, Eds., Nichi-Doku kankeishi 1890-1945 (The History of Japanese-German Relations, 1890-1945], Vol. I (Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai 2008), pp. 133-83, especially pp. 157-83.

30 Iikura Akira, Ierō periru no shinwa. Teikoku Nihon to “kōka ” no gyakusetsu [The Myth of the Yellow Peril. Imperial Japan and the Paradox of the “Yellow Peril”] (Tōkyō: Sairyūsha 2004).

31 On the relations for the time after 1907 see Joseph P. Ferguson, Japanese-Russian Relations, 1907-2007 (London: Routledge 2008).

32 For example Alex Marshall, “Russian Intelligence during the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05,” Intelligence and National Security, 22, 2007, pp. 682-98.

33 See thereon Inaba Chiharu, “Japanese Intelligence Operations in Scandinavia During World War II. Cryptographic Cooperation with Finns and Onodera's Activities in Sweden,” Scandinavian Journal of History, 33, 2, June 2008, pp. 122-138; Gerhard Krebs, “Japanese Mediation Attempts Between Poland and Germany 1938/39,” Agnieszka Kozyra and Romuald Huszcza, Eds., To Commemorate 75 Years of the Japanese Language Teaching at Warsaw University. Proceedings of the Warsaw Symposium on Japanese Studies, 23-26 November, 1994 (Warsaw: Department of Japanese and Korean Studies, Oriental Institute Warsaw University, Academic Publishing House DIALOG 1999), pp. 77-99.

See also the review article of Ch. Inaba in Nichi-Ro sensō pp. 456-59.

34 See Bando Hiroshi, Pōrandojin to Nichi-Ro sensō [The Poles and the Russo-Japanese War] (Tōkyō: Aoki Shoten 1995).

35 On the rather poor Russian successes in the field of intelligence during the war see Alex Marshall, “Russian Intelligence during the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05,” Intelligence and National Security, 22, 2007, pp. 682-98.

36 Lloyd C. Gardner, Imperial America. American Foreign Policy since 1898 (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1976), p. 40.

37 Rosen of course had not just left his position as minister to Japan to become ambassador to the USA (as Saul p. 497 maintains) but had lost his position in Tōkyō with the outbreak of war severing diplomatic relations in February 1904.

38 Chanchun under the name Hsingking [New Capital] became the capital of the Japanese puppet state Manchukuo in 1932.

39 See for example the exhibition publications Der Russisch-Japanische Krieg 1904/05 im Spiegel deutscher Bilderbogen. Herausgegeben von Inaba Chiharu und Sven Saaler (Tōkyō: Deutsches Institut fūr Japanstudien 2005); Frederic Alan Sharf, Ed., A Much Recorded War: The Russo-Japanese War in History an Imagery [Exhibition, Organized by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, from January 1, 2005 to March 28, 2006] (Boston: MFA Publications 2005).

40 Stewart Lone, Provincial Life and the Military in Imperial Japan: The Phantom Samurai (London: Routledge 2009).

41 Jan Kusber, Krieg und Revolution in Russland 1904-1906. Das Militär im Verhältnis zu Wirtschaft, Autokratie und Gesellschaft (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag 1997).

42 Jan Kusber and Andreas Frings, Eds., Das Zarenreich, das Jahr 1905 und seine Wirkungen: Bestandsaufnahmen (Berlin, LIT 2007). Therein only S. Neitzel on military questions, see above.

43 See also Roxane Haag-Higuchi, “A Topos and Its Dissolution: Japan in Some 20th Century Iranian Texts,” Iranian Studies, Vol. 29, 1-2, Winter/Spring 1996, pp. 71-83.

44 Said Amir Arjomand, “Constitutions and Struggle for Political Order: A Study in the Modernization of Political Traditions,” European Journal of Sociology, 33, 1992, pp. 39-82, here p. 55; Cyrus Schayegh, Constitutionalism and Autocracy in Modern Iran (Genève: Université de Genève 2001), pp. 40-41.

45 On the enthusiasm in Turkey after the Russo-Japanese War and its influence on the Young Turks’ revolution in 1908 see also Renée Worringer, Comparing Perceptions: Japan as Archetype for Ottoman Modernity, 1876-1918 (Ph. D. Thesis University of Chicago 2001), pp. 184-221; ibid., “‘Sick Man of Europe’ or ‘Japan of the Near East’? Constructing Ottoman Modernity in the Hamidian and Young Turk Eras,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 36, 2, 2004, pp. 207-23.

46 Pertev Demirhan, Generalfeldmarschall Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz. Das Lebensbild eines großen Soldaten. Aus meinen persönlichen Erinnerungen (Göttingen: Göttinger Verlagsanstalt 1960), pp. 66-93; Colmar von der Goltz, Denkwūrdigkeiten (Berlin: Mittler 1919), pp. 271, 273.

Thereon also: Handan Nezir Akmeşe, The Birth of Modern Turkey: The Ottoman Military and the March to WW I (London: I.B. Tauris 2005), pp. 28-31, 72-79.

47 Itō Yukio, Rikken kokka to Nichi-Ro sensō [The Constitutional State and the Russo-Japanese War] (Tōkyō: Mokutakusha 2000).

48 Lone, op. cit.

49 A similar vision is found in a German publication during the Russo-Japanese War warning against the yellow peril: The plan of the Japanese is, to force now the Tsar's Empire to give up the superiority in East Asia, so that the Japanese take over that role themselves, teaching and guiding the Chinese masses and eventually expel with their support all Europeans from East Asia (Carl Tanera, Der russisch-japanische Kampf um die Vorherrschaft im Osten, Lahr: Groß & Schauenburg 1905, p. 3).

50 Daniel A. Métraux, “Jack London, Asian Wars and the ‘Yellow Peril,’” The Asia-Pacific Journal, 4-3-10, January 25, 2010. Japan focus (http://japanfocus.org/-Daniel_A_-M_traux/3293).

51 Jeanne Campbell Reesman, Jack London's Racial Lives: A Critical Biography (Athens: The University of Georgia Press 2009), pp. 103-06.

52 See also Edward S. Miller, War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897-1945 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press 1991).

53 Homer Lea, The Valor of Ignorance (New York: Harper 1909).

54 See Clare Boothe’ foreword in the new edition of 1942 (New York and London: Harper & Brothers).

55 Homer Lea, (New York: Harper 1912), pp. 85-99.

56 H. Bruce Franklin, War Stars: The Superweapon and the American Imagination (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1988) pp. 39-45.

57 Hector C. Bywater, The Great Pacific War: A History of the American-Japanese Campaign of 1931-33 (Boston: H. Mifflin Company 1925).

58 Satō Kōjirō, Nichi-Bei sensō yume monogatari [The Fantasy of the Japanese-American War] (Tōkyō: Tokuma Shoten 1921).

59 See also Yukiko Sumi Barnett, “India in Asia: Ōkawa Shūmei's Pan-Asian Thought and His Idea of India in Early Twentieth-Century Japan”, Journal of the Oxford University History Society, 1, 2004, pp. 1-23.

60 Goto Ken'ichi, Tensions of Empire: Japan and Southeast Asia in the Colonial and Postcolonial World (Athens: University of Ohio Press 2003), p. 279.

A tendency similar to that one of Hirama is found in Nakamura Katsunori, Nichi-Ro sensō shōri no sekaishi ni oyobashita eikyō [The influence exerted by the victory in the Russo-Japanese War on World History] (Osaka: Kokumin Kaikan 2005).

61 Hirama Yōichi, “Daitōasensō e no michi - Soren to Beikoku, soshite Chūgoku,” [the Path to the Greater East Asia War - the Soviet Union and America as well as China] Yasukuni jinja Yūshūkan, Nichi-Ro sensō hyakunen zuroku [The diagram of the Russo-Japanese War of 100 years] (Tōkyō: Yasukuni jinja 2005), pp. 68-70. On the role of Yasukuni Shrine in the context of the 1904-05 war see Shimazu, Society pp. 147-54.

62 See as newer publication on the alliance Phillips Payson O'Brien, Ed., The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902-1922 (London: RoutledgeCurzon 2004).

63 Gotō Ken'ichi, Shōwaki Nihon to Indoneshia. 1930nendai “nanshin” no ronri -Nihon-kan no keifu [Japan and Indonesia in the Shōwa Era. The Theory of the “Southern Strike” and the Genealogical Tree of the Japan View in the 1930s] (Tōkyō: Keisō Shobō 1986), pp. 345-46; ibid.: “Returning to Asia”: Japan-Indonesia Relations 1930s-1942 (Tōkyō: Ryukei Shyosha 1997), pp. 301-304.

64 Another Vietnamese intellectual, Phan Chau Trinh, visited Japan in 1906 together with Phan Boi Chau and held talks among others with the reformer Fukuzawa Yūkichi. See Vinh Sinh, Ed., Phan Chau Trinh and his Political Writings (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 2009), pp. 16-20.

65 Richard Albert Bradshaw, Japan and European Colonialism in Africa, 1800-1937 (Ph. D. Thesis Ohio University 1992), pp. 150-56.

66 Ibid. pp. 115-47.

67 So also Bahru Zewde, “The Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895-6 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5: A Comparative Essay,” Abdussamad H. Ahmad and Richard Pankhurst, Eds., Adwa. Victory Centenary Conference 26 February - 2 March 1996 (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University 1998), pp. 299-318; Erich Mūller, “Abessinien im weltpolitschen Entscheidungsraum,” Max Grühl, Abessinien. Die Zitadelle Afrikas (Berlin: Graf von Schlieffen-Verlag 1935), pp. 9-17.

68 On the release of the awakening mood among Afro-Americans due to the battle of Adua see James Quirin, “African American Perceptions of the Battle of Adwa, 1896-1914,” Siegbert Uhlig et al., Eds., Proceedings of the XVth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Hamburg 2003 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 2006), pp. 343-47.

69 W.E. B. Du Bois, The World and Africa: An Inquiry into the Part Which Africa has Played in World History (New York: International Publishers 1965), p. 260.

70 Thereon also Bill V. Mullen, “Du Bois, Dark Princess, and the Afro-Asian International,” Positions, 11,1, Spring 2003, pp. 218-39; Marc Gallicchio, The African American Encounter with Japan and China: Black Internationalism in Asia, 1895-1945 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press 2000), pp. 39, 44.

71 Gerald Horne, Race War. White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire (New York: New York University Press 2004), pp. 43-47; Reginald Kearney, African American Views of the Japanese: Solidarity or Sedition? (Albany: State University of New York Press 1998), pp. 18-91; William R. Scott, The Sons of Sheba's Race: African-Americans and the Italo-Ethiopian War, 1935-1941 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1993, pp. 143-44; Gallicchio, pp. 14-15.

72 Ras (= Prince) Tafari was the original name of Haile Selassi [Power of the Trinity] until his coronation in 1930.

73 See out of his numerous writings for example A. Hill, Ed., The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Papers, 9 Vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press 1983) particularly Vol. 1, p. 312 and Vol. 4, p. 235.

74 Gallicchio pp. 44-48; Gary Y. Okihiro, Margins and Mainstreams: Asians in American History and Culture (Seattle: University of Washington Press 1994), pp. 127-28.

75 John J. Stephan, Hawaii Under the Rising Sun: Japan's Plans for Conquest After Pearl Harbor (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press 1984), p. 60.

76 Bradshaw pp. 296-97.

77 Paul Gordon Lauren, Power and Prejudice: The Politics and Diplomacy of Racial Discrimination (Boulder: Westview Press 1996), p. 72.

78 Massay Kebede, “Japan and Ethiopia: An Appraisal of Similarities and Divergent Courses,” Fukui Katsuyoshi et al., Eds., Ethiopia in Broader Perspective. Papers of the XIIIth International Confererence of Ethiopian Studies, Kyoto, 12-17 December 1997 (Kyoto: Shokado Book Sellers 1997), Vol. 1, pp. 639-51.

79 Aoki Sumio and Kurimoto Eisei, “Japanese Interest in Ethiopia (1868-1940): Chronology and Bibliography,” Fukui Vol. 1, pp. 713-28, here p. 715; Bradshaw pp.315-18.

80 Addis Hiwet, Ethiopia from Autocracy to Revolution (London: The Author 1975), pp. 67-77; Salvatore Tedeschi, “La carrière et les idées de Heruy (1878-1938),” Luigi Fusella et al.. Trois essais sur la literature éthiopienne (Paris: aresae 1984), pp. 39-104; Bradshaw pp. 300-11; Baruh Zewde, “The Concept of Japanization in the Intellectual History of Modern Ethiopia,” Proceedings of the Fifth Seminar of the Department of History (AAU) (Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University 1990), pp. 1-17; Reidulf K. Molvaer, Black Lions: The Creative Lives of Modern Ethiopia's Literary Giants and Pioneers (Lawrenceville, NJ: The Red Sea Press 1997), pp. 1-27; Hidéko Faerber-Ishihara, Les premiers contacts entre l’Éthiopie et le Japon (Paris : aresae 1998); ibid., “Heruy, le Japon et les japonisants’,” Alain Rouaud, ed., Les orientalistes sont des aventuriers. Guirlande offerte à Joseph Tubiana par ses élèves et ses amis (Paris: Sépia 1999), pp. 143-49; J. Calvitt Clarke III, Alliance of the Colored Peoples: Ethiopia & Japan before World War II (Woodbridge: James Currey 2011), pp. 44-48.

81 Baruh Zewde, The Concept; Clarke pp. 37-38.

82 Hans Wilhelm Lockot, The Mission: The Life, Reign and Character of Haile Selassie I. (New York: St. Martin's Press 1987), pp. 32-33, 124f; Bradshaw pp. 298-300.

83 Yamada Kazuhiro, Masukaru no hanayome - maboroshi no Echiopia ōji-hi [The Bride of the Maskal Flower - the Vision of an Ethiopian princess consort] (Tōkyō: Asahi Shinbunsha 1996), pp. 230-33; Clarke pp. 83-91; Report of Military Attaché Cortlandt Parker, Tōkyō, March 19, 1935, U.S. Military Intelligence Reports: Japan 1918-1941 (Bethesda: University Publishers of America 1986), Microfilm Reel 15, pp. 126-28.

On Italy's fear of a Japanese economic engagement in Ethiopia see also: I documenti diplomatici italiani. 7th Series, 1922-1935, Vol. 11 (Roma, La Liberia dello Stato 1952), Nos. 42, 148, 204.

84 Edward Ullendorf, Translater, The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I. “My Life and Ethiopia's Progress, 1892-1937”(Oxford: Oxford University Press 1976), pp. 208-09.

85 Report of Military Attaché William C. Crane, Tōkyō, January 17, 1934, U.S. Military Intelligence Reports: Japan 1918-1941, Microfilm Reel 15, pp. 129-131.

86 See I documenti diplomatici italiani. 7th Serie, 1922-1935, Vol. 11, Nos. 42, 148, 204.

87 Grandi to Mussolini April 29, 1936, I documenti diplomatici italiani. 8th Serie, Vol. 3, No. 796.

88 George W. Baer, “Haile Selassie's Protectorate Appeal to King Edward VIII.,” Cahiers d’études africaines 9,2, 1969, pp. 306-12.

89 H.W. Bauer, “Japans Vordringen in Afrika und in der Südsee - ein Schlag gegen das Herrschaftsrecht der weißen Rasse,” Afrika-Nachrichten 15, 10, 1934, pp. 249-51; ibid., “Die Japaner in den ostafrikanischen Ländern - Folgen auf die Eingeborenen,” Afrika-Nachrichten 15, 11, 1934, pp. 288-89; Hans Gerd Esser, “Weiß gegen Schwarz. Eine rassenpolitische Betrachtung zum Abessinien-Konflikt,” Afrika-Nachrichten 16, 8, 1935, pp. 200, 202; Maximilian Claar, “Japan und Abessinien. Ein Vorstoß des japanischen Imperialismus,” Deutsche Rundschau, 60, February 1934, pp. 83-88; Anton Zischka, Der Kampf um die Weltmacht Baumwolle (Berlin: Wegweiser-Verlag 1936), pp. 102-12; ibid., Italien in der Welt (Leipzig, Wilhelm Goldmann Verlag 1937), pp. 277-79; ibid., Abessinien, das letzte ungelöste Problem Afrikas (Leipzig, Wilhelm Goldmann Verlag) 1935, pp. 171-77, 195, 219; Major a.D. Paul Schnöckel, “Abessinien in der Weltpolitik,” Deutsche Kolonial Zeitung 47, 3, März 1935, pp. 51-51; Roman Freiherr von Procházka, Abessinien: Die schwarze Gefahr (Wien, Saturnverlag 1935), pp. 7-8, 12, 69-71, 96-101; Max Grühl, Die Wiedergeburt des Imperiums. Entscheidungskampf im Mittelmeer? Eine geopolitische Abhandlung (Berlin, Graf von Schlieffen-Verlag 1937).

90 Bradshaw pp. 330-58; Valdo Ferretti, Il Giappone e la Politica estera Italiana 1935-41 (Milano: Guiffrè Editore 1983), p. 27, 41-49; Clarke pp. 109-115; Aydin, Politics p. 179.

91 Shimonaka Yasaburō, “I-E funsō mondai to Nihon” [The Problem of the Italian-Ethiopian Conflict and Japan], Dai Ajia Shugi, August 1935, pp. 32-25, here p. 34. The Ethiopians had immigrated from Southern Arabia 2000-3000 years ago.

92 Utsunomiya Kiyo, “Hakujin teikokushugi no kokujinkoku gōryaku hishi” [Secret History of the Pillage of the Black Men's Country by the Imperialism of the Whites], Dai Ajia Shugi, August 1935, pp. 39-41, here p. 39. Utsunomiya Kiyo was the pen name of Naval Captain Inuzuka Koreshige who became known for his anti-Semitic writings under this pen name. From 1939 to 1942 Inzuka was commissioner for Jewish problems in Japanese occupied Shanghai.

93 Murakawa Kengo, “I-E funsō no sekaishiteki igi” [The Importance of the Italian-Ethiopian Conflict for World History], Dai Ajia Shugi, October 1935, pp. 2-5, here p. 4.

94 “Echiopia mondai to Nihon” [The Ethiopian Problem and Japan], Dai Ajia Shugi, September 1935, p. 102.

95 Kajima Morinosuke, “Echiopia no higeki to Ajia minzoku” [The Tragedy of Ethiopia and the Peoples of Asia], Dai Ajia Shugi, May 1936, pp. 30-34.

Kajima Morinosuke himself has written a book on the Russo-Japanese War in his series on Japanese diplomatic history: Nichi-Ro sensō [The Russo-Japanese War] (Tōkyō: Kajima Heiwa Kenkyūjo 1970). English and German language editions are available.

96 W.E. B. Du Bois, “Inter-Racial Implications of the Ethiopian Crisis,” Foreign Affairs, 14, 1, October 1935, pp. 82-92, here pp. 87-88.

97 David Levering Lewis, W.E.B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919-1963 (New York: Holt 2000), pp. 414-19, 461-70; Gallicchio pp. 73-76; Aydin, Politics p. 179; Takemoto Yūko, “W.E.B. Dyubois toNihon” [W.E.B. Du Bois and Japan], Shien, 54, 2, March 1994, pp. 79-96.

98 Clarke p. 148.

99 See also J. Calvitt Clarke III, Russia and Italy against Hitler: The Bolshevik-Fascist Rapprochement of the 1930s (New York, Greenwood Press 1991), pp. 168-69, 190.

100 Boris Slavinsky, The Japanese-Soviet Neutrality Pact: A Diplomatic History, 1941-1945 (London: RoutledgeCurzon 2004).

101 Edward Ullendorf, From Emperor Haile Slassie to H. J. Polotsky: An Ethiopian and Semitic Miscellany (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz), pp. 1-10.